tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-36859075266911410992024-03-24T18:32:30.184-05:00Tails Through TimeShort trips on the long road of aviation historyJP Santiagohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02743418658732808826noreply@blogger.comBlogger529125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3685907526691141099.post-67652463670742054312016-05-28T23:25:00.000-05:002016-05-28T23:25:37.159-05:00CHECK SIX: The F-4 Phantom's F3H Demon Roots<div style="text-align: justify;">
With yesterday being the 58th anniversary of the F-4 Phantom II's maiden flight, here's some interesting trivia. There is actually a continuous line of evolution from the McDonnell F3H Demon to the F-4 Phantom (which was designated F4H when it first flew). This photo is of the full scale mock up of the main missing link that connects the F3H Demon to the F4H Phantom. In 1953, the McDonnell team headed by Herman Barkey was looking at ways of extending the Demon's viability and expanding its versatility. McDonnell had the in house designation F3H-X for the design as it was considered an evolution of the Demon. </div>
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<b>F3H-C "Super Demon":</b> This design was first, it was powered by a single J67 engine. The J67 was to be have been a license-built version of the Rolls Royce Olympus. No J67s were ever built in the US and the Navy wasn't keen on an unproven engine. </div>
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<b>F3H-E:</b> This was different enough from the Demon that it was given the Model 98A designator. It was also powered by the J67 but had a bigger wing than the Demon and had a level stance on the ground instead of the nose-high stance of the Demon.</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiZSK7evIGK6YI6LmXMvD-BhMAL2Y29K0NC3Gxa8IdV9iiFX_vBdh-e8q1JW3LzMcR4s9Gl4sJ1kE4A37tJJjZ6FxoevlPBOWNJkIsLSH-NbC_Be08c-UIu9JR0nbvwG0Z0G1SLXGnpxxg/s1600/F3H-GHmockupatMcDonnell-2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="237" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiZSK7evIGK6YI6LmXMvD-BhMAL2Y29K0NC3Gxa8IdV9iiFX_vBdh-e8q1JW3LzMcR4s9Gl4sJ1kE4A37tJJjZ6FxoevlPBOWNJkIsLSH-NbC_Be08c-UIu9JR0nbvwG0Z0G1SLXGnpxxg/s320/F3H-GHmockupatMcDonnell-2.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Full scale mock up of the F3H-G design<br /><i>(Wikipedia)</i></td></tr>
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<b>F3H-G (Model 98B):</b> This one had twin J65 engines, a license built British Sapphire engine like that used on the Hawker Hunter. It had lateral intakes that looked more like the Phantoms and exhausts that looked also more like the eventual Phantom design. The Navy was attracted to twin engines for safety. The wing was also further enlarged from the F3H-E. It had four 20mm cannon and had an impressive external stores capability. </div>
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<b>F3H-H:</b> This was was the F3H-G but with two of the then-new and promising GE J79 engines. </div>
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<b>Model 98C:</b> Delta winged version of the F3H-G/98B with J65 engines. </div>
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<b>Model 98D:</b> Delta winged version of the F3H-G/98B with J79 engines. </div>
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<b>F3H-J (Model 98E):</b> Similar to the 98C/D, but with an even larger delta wing. </div>
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<b>Model 98F: </b>Recon version of the 98C. </div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Tail section of the F3H-G mockup showing the two different engine sizes-<br />The J79 was on the right side, the J65 was on the left side.<br /><i>(Wikipedia)</i></td></tr>
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Barkey's team decided the F3H-G/98B was the most promising of the designs and built a full scale mockup, but one side was sized for the J65 engine and the other side sized for the J79 engine. On 19 September 1953 McDonnell submitted the design as an unsolicited proposal to the Navy. Though impressed with the design, the Navy had already ordered the Grumman F11F Tiger and Vought F8U Crusader for its supersonic fighter needs. The Navy, however, encouraged Herman Barkley's team to refine the design to meet an all-weather attack requirement. This design was submitted to the Navy in 1954 and two prototypes were ordered as the AH-1 which had four 20mm cannon and eleven weapons stations. </div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">F4H full scale mock up showing the originally <br />planned trapeze launchers for the Sparrow missiles.<br /><i>(Wikipedia)</i></td></tr>
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The following year the all-weather attack program was canceled and McDonnell was asked to redesign the AH-1 into a two-seat interceptor with a single centerline station for a 600-gallon fuel tank and AIM-7 Sparrow capability. The J65 engine was dropped from contention when the Chief of Naval Operations selected the J79 engine for the new aircraft which would be designated F4H Phantom II. </div>
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And the rest is history! </div>
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<i>Further reading: </i></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2010/03/when-mcdonnell-f-4-phantom-ii-was.html" target="_blank">The Ad Hoc Solutions to Get Air-to-Ground Capability in the Navy's Phantoms in Vietnam</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2011/10/rivet-haste-rebirth-of-usaf-at-end-of.html" target="_blank">Rivet Haste: Rebirth of the USAF at the End of Vietnam</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2012/07/the-mach-3-phantom.html" target="_blank">The Mach 3 Phantom</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2010/05/during-operation-linebacker-over.html" target="_blank">The Flamboyant Markings of VF-51's Phantoms in Vietnam</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2010/03/after-dismal-performance-of-naval.html" target="_blank">The Ault Report: Improving USN Fighter Effectiveness</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2011/01/first-successful-combat-drops-of-laser.html" target="_blank">The First Successful Combat Drops of Laser Guided Bombs</a></div>
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JP Santiagohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02743418658732808826noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3685907526691141099.post-15580662508839618432016-05-21T22:00:00.000-05:002016-05-21T22:00:06.021-05:00CHECK SIX: KLM Becomes the First European Airline Postwar to Serve America<div style="text-align: justify;">
21 MAY 1946: Seventy years ago today, KLM Royal Dutch Airlines was the first European airline postwar to launch scheduled services to the United States with the arrival of a KLM Douglas DC-4 at New York Idlewild Airport (today's JFK Airport). The aircraft was PH-TAR "Rotterdam". After the end of the Second World War, KLM's long-haul fleet consisted of former military Douglas C-54 Skymasters, the military transport derivative of the DC-4. To augment this fleet, right after the war, KLM ordered four DC-4s and PH-TAR was one of these four aircraft. It was delivered to KLM on 12 April 1946 and flew the first US services just five weeks later.</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">PH-TAR "Rotterdam" arrives in New York City<br /><i>(KLM Royal Dutch Airlines)</i></td></tr>
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This newsreel clip is in Dutch, but the images are wonderful even for us non-Dutch speakers!</div>
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<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Fys18X7I8YY" width="560"></iframe></div>
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<i>Further reading: </i></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2016/05/check-six-douglas-dc-7.html" target="_blank">CHECK SIX: The Douglas DC-7</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2010/02/only-seven-weeks-after-being.html" target="_blank">Scandinavian Airlines System Pioneers Polar Commercial Routes</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2015/04/the-last-savoia-marchetti-airliner.html" target="_blank">The Last Savoia-Marchetti Airliner</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2014/12/discord-at-1944-chicago-conference-and.html" target="_blank">Discord at the 1944 Chicago Convention and the Formation of ICAO</a></div>
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JP Santiagohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02743418658732808826noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3685907526691141099.post-66036783465237542212016-05-18T21:48:00.001-05:002016-05-18T21:48:29.958-05:00CHECK SIX: The Douglas DC-7<div style="text-align: justify;">
18 MAY 1953: FIRST FLIGHT OF THE DOUGLAS DC-7</div>
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Douglas launched the DC-7 program at the prodding of C.R. Smith of American Airlines who wanted a competitor to TWA's Lockheed Super Constellations for the first transcontinental nonstop services. American's requirement even called for the same engines as the Super Constellation, the Wright R-3350 Turbo Compound (the DC-6 used the Pratt & Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp) radial. Douglas didn't think there was a market for such an aircraft, but Smith ordered 25 of what would become the DC-7 for $40 million which pretty much covered Douglas' development costs. To save time and make the most of the $40 million, the DC-7 was a stretched DC-6 with Wright R-3350 engines. The DC-7 was slightly faster than the Super Consellation and could under *ideal* conditions (which was rare) do a nonstop transcon in under 8 hours. </div>
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The first variant of the DC-7 was good for transcon runs but was no better than the DC-6 for oceanic routes. That first variant went exclusively to US operators- American (34), United (57), Delta (10), and National (4). American Airlines inaugurated its own nonstop "Mercury Service" DC-7 flights between Los Angeles and New York Idlewild on 29 November 1953. As the DC-7 had a higher cruising speed than the Super Constellation, the eastbound LA-New York run was made easily in 7 hours, 15 minutes (a fact not lost upon American's marketing department, hence the name "Mercury Service"), but the westbound run from New York to LA couldn't be made within 8 hours. Despite over a dozen modifications to the DC-7s made by American's engineers which included tweaks of the Wright R-3350 radial engines to squeeze every bit of horsepower out of the engines, the DC-7s still couldn't beat the prevailing winds. American's pilot union repeatedly pointed this fact out, but C.R. Smith's influence in Washington left the issue unaddressed by federal regulators. In the following year, federal regulators adjusted the time limit to allow the flight to be made legally and American's DC-7s blocked in at 8 hours, 15 minutes on a westbound nonstop.</div>
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The next DC-7 variant was the DC-7B which had uprated engines and more fuel tanks in the engine nacelles which made oceanic crossings possible. Pan American launched its own transatlantic services in the summer of 1955 and South African Airways was finally able to fly Johannesburg-London nonstop.</div>
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The final DC-7 variant had longer wings and a stretched fuselage, the DC-7C "Seven Seas". The fuel capacity of the Seven Seas allowed full westbound nonstop transatlantic capability, something that the DC-7B couldn't routinely perform. </div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgr3PitflT2CX-Lu-FQ4DqPRvIsqXgMRZtnLZ_b0v5HUMMtVschUrtXmUOCebNFilYbg1a6wejgg8iKAmxlJ1nKCsak30NEc1VNnyTUONFe8uv9PvHPh4WLlvd-nfwqGlEvG_wD2wZylfo/s1600/DC-7DModel.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="159" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgr3PitflT2CX-Lu-FQ4DqPRvIsqXgMRZtnLZ_b0v5HUMMtVschUrtXmUOCebNFilYbg1a6wejgg8iKAmxlJ1nKCsak30NEc1VNnyTUONFe8uv9PvHPh4WLlvd-nfwqGlEvG_wD2wZylfo/s320/DC-7DModel.png" width="320" /></a></div>
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There was a DC-7D which would have Rolls-Royce Tyne turboprops (same engine as the Vickers Vanguard) and a swept back vertical fin, but it never made it off the drawing board as Donald Douglas decided jets were the way to go and development of the DC-8 was given priority. </div>
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Further reading: </div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2010/10/holy-grail-of-nonstop-transcontinental.html" target="_blank">The Holy Grail of Nonstop Transcontinental Service</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2010/02/only-seven-weeks-after-being.html" target="_blank">Scandinavian Airlines System Pioneers Polar Commercial Routes</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2010/11/cadillac-of-constellation-line.html" target="_blank">The Cadillac of the Constellation Line</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2010/11/rise-of-coach-class-airfares.html" target="_blank">The Rise of Coach Class Air Fares</a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;"><i>(Photos: Vintage Ad Browser, California Classic Forums)</i></span></div>
JP Santiagohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02743418658732808826noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3685907526691141099.post-3355182406610230412016-05-14T21:19:00.000-05:002016-05-14T21:19:56.257-05:00CHECK SIX: The Rollout of the Boeing 367-80<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiD0LCE12zTVgr7GjcUPN_qWc2wXTqLdRQfwB7unmYXR2wFM4uOyrbU5LBFB0lPk2ASa7S3HU3c3SH7tEG6w23tfWH4dIXwpI3xTmjJixX3T2RVrj-5mNh5tierm32GaPSKuv2I2slw1rk/s1600/BillAllenBoeing.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="313" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiD0LCE12zTVgr7GjcUPN_qWc2wXTqLdRQfwB7unmYXR2wFM4uOyrbU5LBFB0lPk2ASa7S3HU3c3SH7tEG6w23tfWH4dIXwpI3xTmjJixX3T2RVrj-5mNh5tierm32GaPSKuv2I2slw1rk/s400/BillAllenBoeing.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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14 May 1954: The rollout at Boeing's Renton Field facility of the aircraft that would change jet transport, the Boeing 367-80. Bill Boeing was 72 at the time and had long since divested his holdings in the company he founded, but he was present at the rollout of the the Dash 80 and Boeing's wife, Bertha, christened the aircraft with champagne while the Renton High School band played "Wild Blue Yonder", the USAF theme. I always thought this Boeing photo was cool- it's the Boeing president at the time, Bill Allen, showing the 367-80 to Bill Boeing. </div>
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Allen bet the company on Dash 80, investing $16 million of the company's money to gear up for production tooling before having an order from either any airline or the US Air Force. </div>
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But then again, taking a bold risk was something the company did three times undeniably in its history. The first time was in 1934. Boeing president Claire Egdtvedt proceeded with the Boeing 299 without any orders or contracts from the US Army Air Corps for a four engined bomber- the 299 is better known as the B-17 Flying Fortress. When Egdtvedt took his gamble on the 299 prototype, he asked his friend for guidance- who happened to be Bill Allen, who at the time was the company lawyer.</div>
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Almost twenty years later Bill Allen found himself in the same position when he launched what become both the KC-135 Stratotanker and the Boeing 707 with the Dash 80 prototype. </div>
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And about 10 years later, Bill Allen was fishing in Puget Sound with Pan American chairman Juan Trippe when Trippe pressed Allen on building a jumbo-sized jetliner- legend has it that Trippe asked Allen "Would you build it if I buy it?" and Allen responded "Would you buy it if I build it?" and by the end of the day, the Boeing 747 was launched on a handshake. According to aviation author Robert Gandt, Allen thought to himself the 747 "<i>would be the perfect swan song if he could step down knowing that he had launched the world’s mightiest ship of the sky. It would secure Boeing’s future well into the century. Or it could ruin Boeing</i>".</div>
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Further reading: </div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2015/09/the-xb-15-getting-boeing-back-on-its.html" target="_blank">The XB-15: Getting Boeing Back On Its Feet</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2011/09/how-tax-issue-launched-boeing-707.html" target="_blank">How a Tax Issue Launched the Boeing 707</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2015/04/the-development-of-boeing-flying-boom.html" target="_blank">The Development of the Boeing Flying Boom</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2015/02/the-boeing-pbb-sea-ranger-best-flying.html" target="_blank">The Boeing PBB Sea Ranger: The Best Flying Boat at the Worst Possible Time</a></div>
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JP Santiagohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02743418658732808826noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3685907526691141099.post-44098913105742909162016-05-10T22:00:00.000-05:002016-05-10T22:00:10.761-05:00CHECK SIX: The Vought V-173 "Flying Pancake"<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgYKxIn7znBeANW56B-X9ghwmYL6NRYcXr5Qo9yE-x6zazYI4ThrLwN1UaKlXhx0sH3PUPATf9XVzZyInbLFuPsel1DhaKAn5Tc1OtmfoDriml2W8ZnuArp-NeqGZxPILUWeNpjUyfkZEU/s1600/mDSC_6045.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="266" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgYKxIn7znBeANW56B-X9ghwmYL6NRYcXr5Qo9yE-x6zazYI4ThrLwN1UaKlXhx0sH3PUPATf9XVzZyInbLFuPsel1DhaKAn5Tc1OtmfoDriml2W8ZnuArp-NeqGZxPILUWeNpjUyfkZEU/s400/mDSC_6045.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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In the 1930s while at Vought, aeronautical engineer Charles Zimmerman advocated a unique discoid aircraft layout that was a form of a lifting body that became known as a “flying pancake”- such an aircraft would have low drag and high structural strength. The Vought V-173 was built as a proof of concept aircraft that first flew 23 November 1942. The large 16-foot props turned opposite each other, driven by Continental A-80 four-cylinder 80-horsepower engines on each side of the cockpit. The props turned in the opposite direction of the wing vortices, in effect nearly canceling them out which resulted in a significant drag reduction. The low aspect ratio wing-fuselage was rigid and generated a lot of lift that made the V-173 very maneuverable and gave it excellent low speed handling characteristics. High-speed, maneuverability and good low speed handling got the US Navy’s attention and Vought got the contract for a fighter version called the XF5U. Though the XF5U never flew (it was five times the weight of the V-173 and would have been an impressive carrier fighter), the V-173 made 190 test flights with its last flight on 31 March 1947. It resided in long term storage with the Smithsonian before it was restored by Vought volunteers here in North Texas and is now on display at the Frontiers of Flight Museum at Love Field. </div>
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<i>Further reading: </i></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2016/04/check-six-uss-wasp-cv-7.html" target="_blank">CHECK SIX: The USS Wasp</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2010/05/in-1947-researchers-at-wright-patterson.html" target="_blank">Convair's Lenticular Defense Missile: Pye Wacket</a></div>
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<i>Photo: <a href="https://www.facebook.com/TheChickenWorks/" target="_blank">JP Santiago</a></i></div>
JP Santiagohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02743418658732808826noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3685907526691141099.post-52143888060428515092016-05-09T23:00:00.000-05:002016-05-09T20:29:29.064-05:00CHECK SIX: The Area Ruling of the Cessna Citation X<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgcRF-aHpADr13K41VI9YAfph1oKuVFxgsnT0-Yxy4EJwRhUorKfXrbt0fFIRepmkzrkzFPTG1xM5olJ1fO9C-_oP5OJadDT__Nr4SQbgL-L6htNkNUSpZq22eVU9rkqs2kAc2vp8q0WjU/s1600/mDSC_2273.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="266" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgcRF-aHpADr13K41VI9YAfph1oKuVFxgsnT0-Yxy4EJwRhUorKfXrbt0fFIRepmkzrkzFPTG1xM5olJ1fO9C-_oP5OJadDT__Nr4SQbgL-L6htNkNUSpZq22eVU9rkqs2kAc2vp8q0WjU/s400/mDSC_2273.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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If you look closely at the aft fuselage by the engine nacelles of the Cessna Citation X, it’s pinched in quite considerably to conform with supersonic area ruling, the same reason supersonic fighter jets have “coke bottle waist” mid-fuselages- If you were to plot the cross sectional area of an aircraft from nose to tail, the ideal curve on such a graph would be a smooth elliptical curve. But in most aircraft, the wings, tail, or engine nacelles make that curve “bumpy”- so you can take away some fuselage area by the wings. In the Citation X, the fuselage is pinched in to compensate for the engine nacelles increasing the cross-sectional surface area which is what transonic area ruling- if you didn’t there would be a big increase in drag. The pinching also creates a more constant width channel between the nacelle and fuselage- this keeps air from speeding up locally and then slowing down, which would cause it to become turbulent, also increasing drag (that kind of drag is called interference drag). If you’re going to cruise at Mach 0.92, you’ll need every trick in the aerodynamics book!</div>
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<i>Further reading: </i></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2012/07/cessna-310-as-u-2-trainer.html" target="_blank">The Cessna 310 as a U-2 Trainer</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2015/01/a-short-history-of-groundbreaking.html" target="_blank">A Short History of the Ground-Breaking Williams FJ44 Engine</a></div>
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<i><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Photo: <a href="https://www.facebook.com/TheChickenWorks/" target="_blank">JP Santiago</a></span></i></div>
JP Santiagohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02743418658732808826noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3685907526691141099.post-78377918472167475472016-05-04T21:49:00.000-05:002016-05-04T21:49:01.769-05:00A Giant Ahead of Its Time: The Lockheed R6V Constitution<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<span style="text-align: justify;">Before the start of the Second World War, Pan American Airways was the world's biggest operator of large ocean-going flying boats with the Boeing 314, Martin M-130 and Sikorsky S-42 in the fleet that spanned Pan American's worldwide network. However, the airline recognized that the pace of development in aviation technology meant that landplanes would be the dominant airline aircraft of the future. Pan Am worked with Boeing to bring the Boeing 307 Stratoliner to fruition (the world's first pressurized airliner). But with the start of the war for the United States in 1941, Pan American's operations were shifted to support the war effort and in this capacity the airline solicited the US Navy for the construction of a true heavy-lift landplane transport. This was finalized with the US Navy, Lockheed, and Pan American in November 1942 with what became the Lockheed Model 49 Constitution. </span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiHHGLJ4it37AOLJAvbXBGvobAbj19YM1_tvpHQ1AbcumibgYiD3llYix02XWZQ-giXLSBdya3_9JG4ds4eJaysF9RW4JsQcEUvbtro25h8X1jNSrVbUMVnClm-rog_mwhNuoBpWLKseHM/s1600/Constitution_landing.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="286" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiHHGLJ4it37AOLJAvbXBGvobAbj19YM1_tvpHQ1AbcumibgYiD3llYix02XWZQ-giXLSBdya3_9JG4ds4eJaysF9RW4JsQcEUvbtro25h8X1jNSrVbUMVnClm-rog_mwhNuoBpWLKseHM/s400/Constitution_landing.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The R6V Constitution on final approach at Moffett Field in California<br />
<i>(Wikipedia/US Navy)</i></td></tr>
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<span style="text-align: justify;">The requirements issued by the Navy as suggested by Pan American were for a range of 5,000 miles, 17,500 lb payload at 255 mph at 25,000 feet cruising altitude. A year later on 1 November 1943 the contract was formally issued to Lockheed. Pan American's engineers led by their head engineer, Andre Priester, worked alongside Lockheed's engineers and their head, Willis Hawkins (he also designed the Constellation and later on would work on the F-80 Shooting Star, F-104 Starfighter, and the C-130 Hercules). The fuselage of the Constitution was a double deck, double lobed cross-section design with the large wing passing through the mid-fuselage between decks. With a fully-pressurized double-deck, the Constitution could carry up to 204 military passengers but the normal complement would be 168 passengers. Pan American's plans were for 51 passengers on the lower deck and 58 passengers on the top deck. Cargo doors were installed on the lower deck and the wings were deep enough to allow mechanics to access the four radial engines in flight for maintenance. The Constitution was also the first large transport aircraft to have multi wheel main landing gear bogies (four wheels to each main landing gear). </span></div>
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The wing itself was based on the layout and structure of the wings used on the Constellation and the P-38 Lightning. Four 3,000 horsepower Pratt & Whitney R-4360 28-cylinder Wasp Major engines drove four bladed props. Unusually, the upper surface trailing edge root of the wings could hold RATO units to shorten takeoff runs. There were three units in each wing- they were fired when the landing gear retraction sequence started. As the landing gears took 14 seconds to retract, the RATO units burned for 15 seconds.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgcljlvseCVhxxSBKa8y-JGFIzoKrzVO5iCCVgAB5tFsCC6-YXi1Dy5rkeQvMYQTHQq8begNNtf0zgtHKggOit-OoVfXzvHVrBJgIcuIm_b-3RYC5yLPkow6VMz7-fCats0YVxl6P0tgSQ/s1600/Constitution_RATO.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="317" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgcljlvseCVhxxSBKa8y-JGFIzoKrzVO5iCCVgAB5tFsCC6-YXi1Dy5rkeQvMYQTHQq8begNNtf0zgtHKggOit-OoVfXzvHVrBJgIcuIm_b-3RYC5yLPkow6VMz7-fCats0YVxl6P0tgSQ/s400/Constitution_RATO.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Takeoff using the overwing integral RATO units<br />
<i>(San Diego Air & Space Museum)</i></td></tr>
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Since the Constitution was a low-priority project during the war, it wasn't until well after the war ended in August 1945 that the aircraft was completed. Though standard for today's design work on modern airliners, Lockheed used a full-scale hydraulic and electrical systems test rig that today would be known as an "iron bird". The system was loaded so the hydraulics and flight control systems would "experience" loads similar to what would be found inflight and were invaluable in letting the Constitution's test pilots get familiar with the large aircraft. The first flight came on 9 November 1946 and after the first 44 flight hours of testing the Constitution was found to be significantly underpowered. More powerful versions of the R-4360 Wasp Major were installed that theoretically produced 3,500 horsepower, but in practice even these engines could only garner 2,900 to 3,300 horsepower and that was with water injection and bypassing the superchargers on takeoff. As a result, use of the integral RATO units was commonplace. </div>
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To keep Pan American interested in the project, Lockheed proposed the civilian version of the Constitution be powered by Wright 5,500 horsepower Typhoon turboprop under development, but by this point Pan American had thrown its lot with the Boeing Stratocruiser and bowed out of the Constitution program. Designated XR6O-1 by the US Navy, the first Constitution underwent a full year of flight testing at NAS Patuxent River, Maryland. The second XR6O-1 made its first flight on 9 June 1948 and unlike the first aircraft, the upper deck was fitted out for VIP passenger service with 92 seats while the lower deck was fitted out to carry as much as 40,000 lbs of cargo. Dual spiral staircases at each end of the cabin provided access to the upper deck from the lower deck and passenger entry was via the nose gear well which was large enough to allow airstairs to be pulled up just in front of the nose gear. </div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhxE916oEk7-as18dm8XSPWmCsLSRTnntOx-cauble2ju_1833XS4JOu5H02VOUkhYbGIMGNADhJlhSwGLOKvrepv0YKvCViol1SUXYcdtyOeGnDOJriYzcPRTmTJ3Fqv2e02V4wUhhPmA/s1600/Constitution_SFO.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="308" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhxE916oEk7-as18dm8XSPWmCsLSRTnntOx-cauble2ju_1833XS4JOu5H02VOUkhYbGIMGNADhJlhSwGLOKvrepv0YKvCViol1SUXYcdtyOeGnDOJriYzcPRTmTJ3Fqv2e02V4wUhhPmA/s400/Constitution_SFO.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Constitution on static display during an open house at San Francisco Airport<br />
<i>(San Francisco International Airport/FlySFO.com)</i></td></tr>
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In February 1949 the second R6O (the X prefix was dropped) was commissioned into service at NAS Moffett Field, California, with the fleet logistics support squadron VR-44. Soon joined by the first R6O, the Navy embarked on a series of publicity flights across the country, using the Constitution to not only transport personnel and materiel, but also to stimulate interest in naval aviation. The R6O carried one and a half times more cargo than the next biggest Navy transport, the Douglas R5D (C-54 Skymaster/DC-4). In 1950, the two R6Os were redesigned R6V; in the Navy's aircraft designation system used prior to 1962, "V" stood for the Vega Division of Lockheed that had built the PV-1 Ventura and PV-2 Harpoon in the Second World War- the "O" of Lockheed was dropped as it could be confused with the number zero and "V" took it's place as the Lockheed designator code. They were reassigned to VR-5 for expanded operational duties that included flights to Hawaii and Alaska. With a total of 3,760 flight hours between the two aircraft, in 1953 the R6O Constitutions were retired and placed in storage at NAF Lichtfield Park, Arizona. The aircraft were offered to the airlines on a proposed five-year lease, but no interest came about. </div>
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The first Constitution ended up in Las Vegas as a promotional billboard for Alamo Airways at McCarran Airport and plans were floated to move the aircraft to the Strip to be part of a casino. However, the plans were never materialized and when Howard Hughes acquired the property that the aircraft sat on, he also gained ownership of the aircraft and had it scrapped in 1970. The second Constitution ended up in Opa Locka, Florida, where it was to be sold to a German businessman who wanted to use it for a restaurant in Barcelona, Spain. The deal fell through and the aircraft mysteriously caught fire which gutted the interior but spared the exterior. After several years of legal wrangling, the aircraft was scrapped in 1979.<br />
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<i>Further reading: </i><br />
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2010/06/people-sometimes-ask-me-how-i-decide.html" target="_blank">The Convair Model 6: A Jumbo Jet Before Its Time</a><br />
<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2010/02/when-pan-american-signed-4.html" target="_blank">Pan American and the Boeing 314 Toilet Scandal</a><br />
<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2010/11/cadillac-of-constellation-line.html" target="_blank">The Cadillac of the Constellation Line</a><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Source:</b><i> <a href="http://www.amazon.com/Lockheed-R60-Constitution-Naval-Fighters/dp/B0021UJ51W?ie=UTF8&tag=airlinebuzz-20&link_code=btl&camp=213689&creative=392969" target="_blank">Lockheed R6O/R6V Constitution (Naval Fighers No. 83)</a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://www.assoc-amazon.com/e/ir?t=airlinebuzz-20&l=btl&camp=213689&creative=392969&o=1&a=B0021UJ51W" height="1" style="border: medium none ! important; margin: 0px ! important; padding: 0px ! important;" width="1" /></i> by Steve Ginter. Ginter Books, 2009. </span></div>
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JP Santiagohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02743418658732808826noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3685907526691141099.post-39515546977928616852016-04-29T22:00:00.000-05:002016-04-29T22:00:16.830-05:00The American V-1 Program 1944-1950<div style="text-align: justify;">
Beginning in 1942, Allied intelligence began a systematic analysis of the Fiesler Fi 103 flying bomb better known as the V-1. Analysis of crashed test articles combined with photoreconnaissance and intelligence collected by agents within occupied Europe led the United States in particular to restart its flying bomb programs in 1943 that had laid dormant for the most of the Second World War on account of what was felt to be beyond the current state of the art. In 1944, Northrop was contracted to begin development of the first US flying bomb, designated the JB-1. Running parallel to the Northrop effort was the reverse-engineering of the V-1 using 2,500 lbs of salvaged V-1 parts that had been provided by Great Britain. The parts arrived at Wright-Patterson Field in Dayton, Ohio, on 13 July 1944 and the US Army Air Forces directed the engineering staff there to build 13 copies of the V-1. Quite remarkably, the USAAF technical staff completed the first copy in just three weeks! To put the scope of the success of the Allied intelligence effort and the work the Wright-Patterson Field team into perspective, the first German V-1s struck Britain on 12-13 June 1944. By the end of the following month, the USAAF had its first copy of the V-1 and they had test fired the reverse-engineered pulse jet engine. A memo from the technical team responsible to General Henry Arnold, head of the USAAF, recommended mass production at the earliest opportunity- however, General Arnold and his advisors were well aware of the V-1's inaccuracy and despite reservations that production of an American V-1 would divert crucial wartime resources and manpower from battle-proven weapons, it was felt that if the guidance of the V-1 could be improved, an American version might be useful. </div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Republic-Ford JB-2 differed from the V-1 in minor details<br /><i>(USAF/Wikipedia)</i></td></tr>
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Republic Aviation was tasked with producing the American V-1 which was designated JB-2 with the first of the thirteen USAAF copies arriving on 8 September 1944 from Wright-Patterson Field. The USAAF ordered 1,000 JB-2s from Republic. The Ford Motor Company was tasked with producing the JB-2's pulse jet engine which was designated the PJ31. With Republic's resources nearly all committed to the production of the P-47 Thunderbolt, the company subcontracted the airframe assembly to Willys-Overland, the same company that built the Jeep. With Ford responsible for engine production, the Jack & Heintz Company of Cleveland which had been building aircraft electrical components and autopilots as a subcontractor was given responsibility for the JB-2's control system. Alloy Products of Wisconsin was given responsibility for the fuel tanks and pressure vessels used in the JB-2 while the Northrop was contracted for the JB-2's launch sled. The booster rockets that actually propelled the JB-2 off the ground were contracted to Monsanto. </div>
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By the end of September 1944, the USAAF revised its initial order for 1,000 JB-2s to 1,000 JB-2s *per* month with a target goal to reach that rate by April 1945. The first JB-2 launch took place at Eglin Airfield in Florida on 12 October 1944- just three months had elapsed since start of the German V-1 campaign against London and the first American copy had made its first flight! Flight testing was also carried out at Wendover Field in Utah at the same time that the B-29 Superfortress unit that dropped the atomic bombs, the 509th Composite Group, was a tenant at Wendover training for their special mission. The flight tests didn't go too smoothy- by the first week of December, there were two successful flights out of ten launches. </div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">JB-2 air launch from a B-17 at Eglin Army Air Field in 1944<br /><i>(USAF/Wikipedia)</i></td></tr>
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Northrop's own flying bomb design, the JB-1, made its first launch in December 1944 but crashed after launch. <i>(The JB-1 will be the subject of its own later article here at Tails Through Time.) </i>With the the early failures of the JB-1 and problems with its jet powerplant, the USAAF decided to continue with the development of the Northrop design but production and operational priority went to the JB-2. Despite issues with accuracy in the flight tests at Eglin and Wendover, the USAAF leadership pushed for an increased production rate for the JB-2 to at least 3,000 per month. On 14 January 1945, General Arnold ordered another 75,000 JB-2s with the ability to launch 100 per day by September and 500 per day by January 1946 in anticipate of the invasion of Japan. On the next day, the JB-2 program got the same priority that was given to the B-29 Superfortress program. </div>
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Despite the enthusiasm from the USAAF leadership, theater and operational commanders were skeptical of the JB-2. The generally poor European weather that was interfering with the strategic bombing campaign, however, offered perhaps some utility for the JB-2 as it wasn't dependent on clear weather- a view supported by Sir Trafford Leigh-Mallory, the head of the Royal Air Force and commander-in-chief of Allied air forces for the Normandy invasion as well as General Carl Spaatz, head of US Strategic Air Forces Europe. Spaatz, however, was a bit more measured in his support for the employment of the JB-2. He felt that it was more a harassment weapon that could be used when bad weather precluded a strategic bombing mission and outlined his planned use at 300 JB-2s per day only 10 days out of the month. But General Spaatz was very specific that operational employment of the JB-2 could not interfere with heavy bomber operations and he personally expressed concerns to General Arnold regarding the JB-2's cost-effectiveness given its inaccuracy. </div>
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The JB-2 flight test program centered primarily on improving the weapon's accuracy. The first successful flights in the fall of 1944 showed an average error of eight miles at a range of just over 120 miles, not much better than what the Germans were averaging in their own V-1 campaign. The next step by the USAAF was to install radio guidance control in the JB-2. Using a radar beacon and remote control, it was thought the JB-2's accuracy could be improved. However, continued flight tests showed in 20 flight tests with the new guidance system, the JB-2's average error was no better than it was before with preset controls. Things did get better though- by war's end, the JB-2 with preset controls was averaging 5 miles error over a range of 150 miles and 1/4 mile error over a range of 100 miles with radio guidance. </div>
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The biggest stumbling block to the operational deployment of the JB-2 in Europe in 1945, believe it or not, was logistical. The sheer numbers of JB-2s needed competed with other munitions production and it was estimated by some in the War Department that just transporting the JB-2 and its associated equipment to Europe would take up nearly 25% of Allied shipping capacity in the Atlantic. Brief consideration was given to moving JB-2 production to Europe, but there simply wasn't the production capacity anywhere else but the United States to produce the numbers of JB-2s planners envisioned using. </div>
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With the end of the war in Europe, JB-2 production numbers remained in flux as planners debated what was needed for the planned invasion of Japan. By this point, however, the production and logistical concerns for the mass deployment of the JB-2 had exhausted the initial enthusiasm for the weapon. Production was halted initially at the end of January 1945 but then reinstated at a lower rate. By the time of the Japanese surrender, 1,385 JB-2s had been built when production was terminated.</div>
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Concurrent with the USAAF testing, the US Navy worked on a navalized version of the JB-2 that would have been launched from specially-modified LSTs and escort carriers during the invasion of Japan. Fifty-one JB-2s were requested by the Navy for its own testing program in September 1944 when production was launched. While airborne launches from B-17 Flying Fortresses were done during testing at Eglin Field, the Navy planned to launch JB-2s from Consolidated PB4Y Privateers as well. Navy planners, however, didn't expect operational capability with the JB-2 (which was called the Loon by the Navy) until August or September 1946. The first Navy Loon launch was on 7 January 1946 with the Secretary of the Navy approving the conversion of two submarines for Loon operations in March 1946. Conversion of the USS <i>Cusk</i> (SS-348) began in January 1947. The <i>Cusk </i>entered the history books on 18 February 1947 as the world's first missile submarine when it made its first Loon launch...which ended in failure after only 3.5 miles of flight. The <i>Cusk</i> finally had its first successful launch on 7 March 1947 after five tries. Submarine launch had become the Navy's focus for the Loon program with the USS <i>Carbonero </i>(SS-337) also modified for the program and by 1949 finally carried out a firing from a surface ship, the test ship USS <i>Norton Sound</i>. In March 1950, the Navy terminated in the Loon in favor of the more promising Regulus cruise missile. </div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgdgOidqQoA6-ULKRMsulskxKr6HUjBIoU4k9LJ9MlkGCyhfEJNNIAyLYFKq6rpzBGG1AOXG7y6FW7FSLOTtsluSUs2pD5Ri-GpWUxefJq0fRSUlsLa3mcvhSmmfoBHm4bGtGw5jIlwiDM/s1600/JB2_Cusk.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="253" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgdgOidqQoA6-ULKRMsulskxKr6HUjBIoU4k9LJ9MlkGCyhfEJNNIAyLYFKq6rpzBGG1AOXG7y6FW7FSLOTtsluSUs2pD5Ri-GpWUxefJq0fRSUlsLa3mcvhSmmfoBHm4bGtGw5jIlwiDM/s320/JB2_Cusk.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The USS Cusk fires a JB-2 Loon<br /><i>(US Navy/Wikipedia)</i></td></tr>
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With the US Air Force becoming independent in 1947, the JB-2 program was reactivated in March 1948 at Holloman AFB in New Mexico as part of a program for the development of missile guidance systems and seeker technology. Work using the JB-2 benefitted the later Matador cruise missile program with the JB-2 program winding down by 1949 with test airframes successfully being flown remotely and skid landed for recovery. A joint effort with Eglin AFB also used the JB-2 as a target drone for the development of gunsights. Interestingly "Flakzielgerät 76" was the German cover name for the V-1 during its development which loosely translates as anti-aircraft target device.<br />
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Further reading:<br />
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2011/01/british-defenses-against-summer-1944-v.html" target="_blank">British Defenses Against the Summer 1944 V-1 Bombardment</a><br />
<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2015/11/regulus-us-navys-first-operational.html" target="_blank">Regulus: The US Navy's First Operational Nuclear Missile</a><br />
<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2016/04/check-six-ships-sunk-or-damaged-by.html" target="_blank">CHECK SIX: Ships Damaged or Sunk by the Yokosuka MXY7 Ohka</a><br />
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;"><b>Sources: </b><i>The Evolution of the Cruise Missile: Comprehensive History from the V-1 and V-2 to the Tomahawk and Snark</i> by Kenneth P. Werrell. Air University Press/USAF, 1983, pp 79-85. <i>V-1 Flying Bomb 1942-1952: Hitler's Infamous Doodlebug</i> (New Vanguard No. 106) by Steven J. Zaloga. Osprey Publishing, 2005, pp 39-41.</span><br />
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JP Santiagohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02743418658732808826noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3685907526691141099.post-32625912470434709852016-04-25T21:07:00.000-05:002016-04-25T21:07:57.000-05:00CHECK SIX: The USS Wasp (CV-7)<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjUDf1-SKrrFlDXRLEcTxPaL5modgEsIA5O_chZkHQVUCTQL6RuMe4FwCAu8UGNe183k6VUoSDKcUvAkdM3vU2h77659jFWQI1kZ_Tua1CeUCayZeVK9gmUUzBFE0-zmRXwxG4s94O0ipQ/s1600/USS_Wasp_December_1940_43-1200M.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="180" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjUDf1-SKrrFlDXRLEcTxPaL5modgEsIA5O_chZkHQVUCTQL6RuMe4FwCAu8UGNe183k6VUoSDKcUvAkdM3vU2h77659jFWQI1kZ_Tua1CeUCayZeVK9gmUUzBFE0-zmRXwxG4s94O0ipQ/s320/USS_Wasp_December_1940_43-1200M.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The USS Wasp in 1940<br /><i>(Wikipedia)</i></td></tr>
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The <i>Wasp</i> (CV-7) was a scaled down Yorktown-class carrier and a product of the Washington Naval Treaty. After the <i>Yorktown</i> and <i>Enterprise</i> were built, the US still had 15,000 tons allowed for an additional carrier under the treaty. Since the Navy wanted as big an air wing as possible on the <i>Wasp </i>despite the ship being about 25% smaller than the <i>Yorktown</i> class, a number of torpedo protection features were omitted from the design that would have protected her stores and machinery spaces. The carrier also had less armor protection topside. Her machinery was less powerful than even the <i>Independence</i>-class CVLs. The <i>Wasp's</i> machinery was capable of 75,000 shaft-horsepower. The <i>Yorktown's</i> power plant could do 120,000 shp, the <i>Essex</i>-class had a power plant capable of 150,000 shp and that of the <i>Independence</i>-class CVLs could do 100,000 shp.</div>
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The <i>Wasp</i> had the first deck edge elevator- it was a T-shaped platform to accommodate the tailwheel at the top and the mainwheels on the cross part. Though instead of running vertically on side rails, articulated arms moved the elevator in a semicircular path from the hangar deck to the flight deck. </div>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiC55CJPRntbEuZr6kZ2-frDw_cGnlX7PXI42KB7MUWmOmXqu-2rH-V5U5Kd_TKkYxvVv9cHgoZzRpDTCo1hegE3yAvxWiW7XNbjwPY70jR_8SShyK0fb72Bluhwmsd0dN4NsMhLKTn3YE/s1600/USS_Wasp_%2528CV-7%2529_deck_edge_elevator_with_SB2U_1940.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="254" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiC55CJPRntbEuZr6kZ2-frDw_cGnlX7PXI42KB7MUWmOmXqu-2rH-V5U5Kd_TKkYxvVv9cHgoZzRpDTCo1hegE3yAvxWiW7XNbjwPY70jR_8SShyK0fb72Bluhwmsd0dN4NsMhLKTn3YE/s320/USS_Wasp_%2528CV-7%2529_deck_edge_elevator_with_SB2U_1940.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The deck edge elevator of the USS Wasp with a Vought SB2U Vindicator<br /><i>(National Museum of Naval Aviation/Wikipedia)</i></td></tr>
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The <i>Wasp</i> was commissioned on 25 April 1940. Her final sea trials took place on 26 September 1940 and was afterwards assigned to the Atlantic Fleet with the homeport at Norfolk, Virginia. One of her earliest assignments were experiments to see if Army aircraft, in this case Curtiss P-40 Warhawks, could be flown off the carrier. Interestingly while on Neutrality Patrol in the summer of 1941, the <i>Wasp</i> participated in the search for the German cruiser <i>Admiral Hipper</i>. With the declaration of war in December 1941, the <i>Wasp's</i> first tasking was in the Caribbean to intercept any French warships which were feared to be under Vichy control and would attempt a breakout to reach France. With carrier losses in the Pacific after the Battle of Coral Sea and the Battle of Midway reducing the US Pacific fleet to only three carriers, the <i>Wasp</i> was urgently transferred from the Atlantic Fleet to the Pacific Fleet. It was participation in the Guadalcanal campaign with the USS <i>Saratoga </i>and the USS <i>Enterprise</i> that the <i>Wasp</i> would be lost. </div>
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The design omissions to meet Washington Treaty stipulations would prove fatal in 1942 when she was torpedoed during the Guadalcanal campaign by the submarine <i>I-19</i>. Early war inexperience with damage control was also a factor in the <i>Wasp's</i> sinking. <i>I-19</i> fired six torpedoes- three hit the <i>Wasp</i> in the area of its fuel bunkers and magazines with disastrous effect. The fourth torpedo hit the escorting destroyer USS <i>O'Brien</i>, the fifth and six torpedoes missing. Thirty-five minutes after being hit, Captain Forrest P. Sherman gave the order to abandon ship. She later had to be sunk by one of the escorting destroyers. Of her air wing, 45 aircraft went down with her, but of the 26 aircraft that were airborne at the time of the attack, all but one were recovered aboard the USS <i>Hornet</i>. 193 men died with 366 wounded.</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjOZgWvZrSOnDqF8v_rdBQU7cvHo8xWme3_FZaCkkLG1c4BNHnNoKa1ZbqKLW_oNkkgqkG_rIrsc3ri-RgzOMp3XRNZsuRQzLkLpOuiIqdfWMpKibSYeL7PGQ1NdvvPMnFG9Gwux4t2DlE/s1600/USS_Wasp_%2528CV-7%2529_burning_15_Sep_1942.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="254" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjOZgWvZrSOnDqF8v_rdBQU7cvHo8xWme3_FZaCkkLG1c4BNHnNoKa1ZbqKLW_oNkkgqkG_rIrsc3ri-RgzOMp3XRNZsuRQzLkLpOuiIqdfWMpKibSYeL7PGQ1NdvvPMnFG9Gwux4t2DlE/s320/USS_Wasp_%2528CV-7%2529_burning_15_Sep_1942.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Wasp ablaze shortly after the three torpedo hits<br /><i>(Wikipedia)</i></td></tr>
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<i>Further reading: </i></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2011/02/how-uss-wasp-defeated-rommels-afrika.html" target="_blank">How the USS Wasp Helped Defeat Rommel's Afrika Korps</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2015/07/the-origins-and-development-of-american.html" target="_blank">The Origins and Development of the American Escort Carrier</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2010/10/disastrous-flop-that-was-brewster-f2a.html" target="_blank">The Disastrous Flop That Was the Brewster F2A Buffalo</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2010/12/when-america-needed-hero-butch-ohare.html" target="_blank">When America Needed a Hero, Butch O'Hare Stepped Up</a></div>
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JP Santiagohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02743418658732808826noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3685907526691141099.post-34609361400715384192016-04-24T23:00:00.000-05:002016-04-24T23:00:03.689-05:00The Grand Daddy of the Bell Helicopter Family: The 1942 Model 30<div style="text-align: justify;">
I had posted an article this past November on <a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2015/11/arthur-young-gets-bell-into-helicopter.html" target="_blank">how a self-taught engineer, Arthur Young, got Bell Aircraft into the helicopter business</a>. Young had demonstrated to Larry Bell himself the stability and controllability of his model helicopter designs. From my November 2015 article: </div>
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<i>On 3 September 1941, Young arrived at Bell's Buffalo plant and was taken to a hangar where P-39s were prepared for delivery. Bell ordered the personnel in the hanger to stop work and move the P-39s outside to give Young room for his demonstration. Not only did Young fly a successful demonstration for Larry Bell, he also reviewed with Bell films showing his previous design efforts and showed him his notes on the design process he had developed to solve the problems of vertical flight. Bell was enthralled by Arthur Young and wanted to hear Young's ideas on a full-size piloted helicopter design. In a matter of weeks they reached an agreement where Young would come to Buffalo and work for Bell in developing a new helicopter based on his designs. Young assigned his patents to Bell Aircraft and Larry Bell funded the development of two full-sized helicopters. Young wanted two aircraft in case one crashed and Bell insisted that the second prototype be a two-seater so he could go on a ride! </i></blockquote>
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Though Bell had established a $250,000 budget for Arthur Young and the design and fabrication of a full-scale flying helicopter prototype, the demands of the war effort meant that just about anyone and everyone who worked at Bell was assigned to one of the three shifts that were running around the clock building aircraft. Larry Bell was under the impression that Young would produce manufacturing drawings while Young was under the impression that he would design *and* build the helicopter prototypes. Young had successfully argued that plans couldn't be drawn until more was known about vertical flight through experimentation and test flying. The original agreement was clarified and amended to provide for the construction of two prototypes which would be designated the Model 30. Larry Bell, however, not understanding the nature of helicopter flight himself, would only agree to the fabrication of flying prototypes if Young could assure him that if the engine quit, the helicopter wouldn't drop out of the sky, killing its pilot. Young took one of his remote controlled models, attached an egg to it, and with Larry Bell watching, turned off the electric motor and the model autorotated smoothly to the ground without breaking the egg!</div>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj1yc7NilsQAu4nPLVZR637yAxgas-puXFHXF7_XTtkP4YM7e5N-PQGHHnYKe6P5DmkoO7VBWLKdfZeGd-8SfgeKx8zCTm7q59UdgEvfDlOyqbC9binRiH31BMCIg6cgbohFac1YP0c-Y0/s1600/Bell30_Gardenville.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="266" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj1yc7NilsQAu4nPLVZR637yAxgas-puXFHXF7_XTtkP4YM7e5N-PQGHHnYKe6P5DmkoO7VBWLKdfZeGd-8SfgeKx8zCTm7q59UdgEvfDlOyqbC9binRiH31BMCIg6cgbohFac1YP0c-Y0/s320/Bell30_Gardenville.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Birthplace of Bell Helicopter in Gardenville, New York<br /><i>(Bell Helicopter)</i></td></tr>
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It was decided that a work space separate from the main Bell plant in Buffalo was needed and a vacant Chrysler car dealership building in Gardenville was secured for Young's use. However, since Young had to agree to not place additional burdens on Bell's engineering staff, Young did most of the engineering work himself with his assistant, Bart Kelley (who had been working for Young even before Young joined Bell). Skilled tradesmen and a few draftsmen were sent to Gardenville from the Bell plant- at any given point during the three year development program, Young only had 24 to 32 workers at his disposal. Using one of Young's flying models as a pattern which was scaled up six times, the first Model 30 helicopter was designed and fabricated in just six months starting in June 1942 and was named "Genevieve"- the name never caught on, as everyone referred to this helicopter as "Ship 1". </div>
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The single-seat fuselage was made of plywood and welded tubing with magnesium sheet covering the tail boom. The rotor blades (32 feet in diameter) were made of a composite sandwich of balsa and fir wood with a stainless steel leading edge for reinforcement. A 165-horsepower Franklin flat-six piston engine was used as the power plant. Franklin engines were light aircraft engines used in a variety of light aircraft at the time. The engine was mounted vertically under the rotor mast. Since no one at Bell knew how to make a helicopter transmission, one of Arthur Young's model's transmission was scaled up for the Model 30. </div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgyhiEOKB2SwWOBpZti-WBNpGA6GtLl2G3hXhFce85sW4PcnZSWfNYefGcOu5qBkbP82kXUEnExD5Ff2wDgdDuETyK8fFOcWXilo9EKJ7uNMagJaXhaapB7K5WCizb5gTRG-C0DUhI989E/s1600/Bell30_Ship1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="211" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgyhiEOKB2SwWOBpZti-WBNpGA6GtLl2G3hXhFce85sW4PcnZSWfNYefGcOu5qBkbP82kXUEnExD5Ff2wDgdDuETyK8fFOcWXilo9EKJ7uNMagJaXhaapB7K5WCizb5gTRG-C0DUhI989E/s320/Bell30_Ship1.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Ship 1 with its original "spider legs"<br /><i>(Airwar.ru)</i></td></tr>
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Ship 1 was rolled out of the Gardenville facility on 18 December 1942. It initially had four long spidery legs for its early flight test program that began with its maiden flight on 29 December 1942. Since the program didn't have the budget for a test pilot, Arthur Young himself made the first flight! When Bell's chief test pilot, Robert Stanley, wanted to have a go at the Model 30, he over controlled it and crash landed it. As a result, Bell assigned the Model 30 its own test pilot to work with Arthur Young and prevent further mishaps. Easily repaired, the Model 30 prototype continued its flight test program and experimentation which allowed Arthur Young and his small team to refine the rotor head and transmission design while work began on the second helicopter, designated Ship 2. </div>
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In September 1943, the project's test pilot, Floyd Carlson, was attempting the first autorotation landings when Ship 1 landed hard and crashed a second time. Despite having sustained more damage than the first crash, Ship 1 was rebuilt as Ship 1A but Ship 2 was quickly finished and picked up the Model 30 flight test program in the fall of 1943. As had been agreed upon initially between Larry Bell and Arthur Young, Ship 2 was a two seater with an enclosed cabin as opposed to the open single seat cockpit of Ship 1. With a two seat flying prototype, Bell formally notified the company's board of directors that they had a flying helicopter prototype in testing and that it would be Bell Aircraft's goal of getting into the helicopter business in the postwar period. It was around the end of 1943 that Larry Bell got his wish to ride in a helicopter when Floyd Carlson took up for a short hop around Gardenville. The expanding flight test program with Ship 2 made it a local celebrity with locals lining the fences to catch sight of it in flight. On 4 July 1944, the rebuilt Ship 1 as Ship 1A gave a flight demonstration to thousands of spectators at Buffalo Civic Stadium. With two helicopters in the flight test program, it was inevitable that Bell would be asked to fly rescue flights with the Model 30. </div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjpKwM5bMpb1hf735mU0D9wfygCU8QiKeyJB2FKKYUpWk-py4RuqPvAPVe6F5Sk2blsu8gpzbtkZSV5JX5Y_E8AO3EV5U6ytiz0MIsir4c-M561FHp0gV9wvYc5AjHNWAB0-bMcMgJix18/s1600/Bell30_Ship2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="272" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjpKwM5bMpb1hf735mU0D9wfygCU8QiKeyJB2FKKYUpWk-py4RuqPvAPVe6F5Sk2blsu8gpzbtkZSV5JX5Y_E8AO3EV5U6ytiz0MIsir4c-M561FHp0gV9wvYc5AjHNWAB0-bMcMgJix18/s320/Bell30_Ship2.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The two seat Ship 2<br /><i>(Toronto Aviation History)</i></td></tr>
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On 5 January 1945, Bell test pilot Jack Woolams was injured bailing out of an early model P-59 Airacomet jet fighter. Though injured, Woolams walked a mile deep snowdrifts to reach a farm house in Lockport, New York. With the roads in the area closed due to the heavy snowfall several days earlier, Floyd Carlson flew a physician in Ship 2 to the farm house where Woolams was treated, preventing the need for amputation of his frost-bitten feet. On 14 March 1945, Floyd Carlson was asked again to assist with a rescue and he flew Ship 2 to save two fishermen who had been stranded on an ice floe in Lake Erie for 21 hours. He flew out, picked up the first fisherman, brought him to shore and then went back for the second one. Amusingly the fishermen had insisted on bringing the fish they caught with them, but Carlson refused on the grounds there was no room and Ship 2 couldn't handle the extra weight!</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Ship 3, the unauthorized helicopter<br /><i>(Aviastar.org)</i></td></tr>
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In January 1945, Arthur Young and his growing Gardenville helicopter development team decided to build a third Model 30. Though not authorized by contract, they had figured out they had the parts and sufficient funding to proceed, though they did it quietly starting in January 1945 since it was an unauthorized project. It was decided that Ship 3 would be a two-seater like Ship 2, but it would incorporate all the lessons learned in the design, fabrication and flight testing of Ship 1A and Ship 2. It was only when Ship 3 made its first flight on 20 April 1945 that its existence was revealed to Larry Bell and the company's management. While most company managers might have been upset with this sort of activity, the Gardenville team explained that Ship 3 would bring Bell Aircraft much closer to its goal of entering the civilian helicopter market as it embodied all the lessons learned from the past three years. </div>
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To say that Ship 3 would bring Bell Aircraft closer to entering the civilian helicopter market would be an understatement- Ship 3, in effect, was the prototype for Bell's first success in the postwar market for any aircraft design in its portfolio- the iconic Bell Model 47 helicopter. </div>
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But that's a story for a future article here at Tails Through Time! </div>
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<i>Further reading: </i></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2015/11/arthur-young-gets-bell-into-helicopter.html" target="_blank">Arthur Young Gets Bell into the Helicopter Business</a><div>
<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2011/01/first-operational-helicopter-uav-dash.html" target="_blank">The First Helicopter UAV: DASH and the Gyrodyne QH-50</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2010/07/for-six-week-period-in-summer-of-1945.html" target="_blank">The First Helicopter Medevac Missions</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2015/09/the-cheapest-aircraft-of-second-world.html" target="_blank">The Cheapest Aircraft of the Second World War: The Focke-Achgelis Fa 330</a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;"><b>Sources: </b><i>The Bell Helicopter Textron Story: Changing the Way the World Flies</i> by David A. Brown. Aerofax Publications, 1995, pp 19-39. "<a href="http://airandspace.si.edu/collections/artifact.cfm?object=nasm_A19650240000" target="_blank">Bell Model 30 Ship 1A Genevieve</a>" at the Smithsonian National Air & Space Museum.</span></div>
JP Santiagohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02743418658732808826noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3685907526691141099.post-36333334142331592102016-04-22T23:00:00.000-05:002016-04-22T23:00:11.672-05:00CHECK SIX: Chikuhei Nakajima and his Aircraft Company<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5UYGWDA-_ZVk5P2xSoHlomwzkX3xi6jm0gsreOIuxVBW9gv2R2AAj21tg1nSaHY8c-1RkY__iQrYoY-xDa1p1HkMJCkzmxnPRsLjiAAoad4c4T_ngvbYUnYM_nrOjOSIv41u2vLgM57o/s1600/Chikuhei_nakajima.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5UYGWDA-_ZVk5P2xSoHlomwzkX3xi6jm0gsreOIuxVBW9gv2R2AAj21tg1nSaHY8c-1RkY__iQrYoY-xDa1p1HkMJCkzmxnPRsLjiAAoad4c4T_ngvbYUnYM_nrOjOSIv41u2vLgM57o/s320/Chikuhei_nakajima.jpg" width="225" /></a></div>
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So here's something from the "Persons in Aviation History that Don't Get Enough Attention" Department- this is Chikuhei Nakajima, the founder of the Nakajima Aeroplane Company in Japan. Prior to World War II, there were three dominant aircraft manufacturers in Japan- Mitsubishi, Kawasaki, and Nakajima. Both Mitsubishi and Kawasaki were capitalized from their founding by government contracts for military aircraft. Nakajima, on the other hand, was the only major Japanese aircraft company of the time that not only was independent of any other industry (both Mitsubishi and Kawasaki were divisions of per-exisiting industrial corporations), it also was privately capitalized on account of its success with flying its aircraft on air mail routes within Japan. </div>
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Nakajima was a former naval officer with a background in engineering. While he was still in the Navy, in 1912 he spent time in the United States as a student and observer of naval aviation. He spent time studying aircraft manufacturing with Curtiss Aircraft and even learned to fly during his time with the company. When he returned to Japan, he left the Imperial Japanese Navy and started Nakajima Aircraft in December 1917. His business connections helped him raise capital- while Mitsubishi and Kawasaki's aircraft manufacturing was funded by military orders, Nakajima focused on civilian designs that could fly air mail routes in Japan. By 1924, Nakajima was also designing and building his own aircraft engines. In 1931 he retired with his younger brother taking over the company. </div>
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By the end of the war, only Mitsubishi had built more aircraft for the Japanese war effort than Nakajima. By the terms of the surrender agreement and subsequent military occupation of Japan postwar, aircraft companies were forbidden from aircraft development and production. This wasn't so bad for companies like Mitsubishi and Kawasaki which were diversified. Nakajima had to be dissolved, but many of its managers and engineers stayed together in smaller ventures until 1950 when they formed Fuji Heavy Industries. </div>
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The Fuji T-1 jet trainer was Japan's first indigenous jet aircraft following World War 2 when aircraft production was allowed to resume. Fuji builds trainer aircraft for the JASDF and is a subcontractor for several US aerospace companies, but you all might know Fuji more from their automobile division, Subaru. Many of the Nakajima engineers who couldn't work in aviation after the war turned their attention to Japan's then-fledgling automobile industry. Subaru has been such an important part of Fuji Heavy Industries that the Subaru logo in 2003 became the official logo for Fuji itself.</div>
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<i>Further reading: </i></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2016/04/nakajimas-demon-ki-44-shoki.html" target="_blank">Nakajima's Demon: The Ki-44 Shoki</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2016/04/check-six-1937-kamikaze-flight-that.html" target="_blank">The 1937 Kamikaze Flight That Didn't End in a Fiery Crash</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2016/01/the-japanese-spruce-goose-kawanishi.html" target="_blank">The Japanese Spruce Goose: The Kawanishi H11K Soku</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2010/12/japanese-balloon-offensive-of-1944-1945.html" target="_blank">The Japanese Balloon Offensive of 1944-1945</a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small; font-weight: normal;">(Photo: Wikipedia)</span></h2>
JP Santiagohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02743418658732808826noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3685907526691141099.post-57142627204271728362016-04-19T23:00:00.000-05:002016-04-20T21:26:16.926-05:00Nakajima's Demon: The Ki-44 Shoki<span style="text-align: justify;">Throughout World War 2 the standard practice of all of the major powers both Allied and Axis in introducing a new combat aircraft into operational use was that use in combat followed an extensive flight test and pre-production development period. One of rare exceptions to this established practice came with the Nakajima Ki-44 which was christened "Shoki" (Demon) by its pilots. And it wasn't on account of its performance against Allied aircraft- the first pilots to fly the Shoki in combat gave it that name out of disdain for an aircraft that represented a new philosophy in fighter aircraft for the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Nakajima Ki-44 Shoki's Allied code name was "Tojo"<br />
<i>(San Diego Air and Space Museum Collection)</i></td></tr>
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Until the Ki-44 Shoki (codenamed "Tojo" by the Allies) came along, the prevailing wisdom in Japanese fighter aircraft design was to put maneuverability as the prime design objective- all other considerations were secondary, which to quite an extent explained the relative lack of significant armor protection for fighter pilots, as that would have added weight to the aircraft and adversely impacted maneuverability.</div>
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Nakajima had been exploring the ideas of trading off maneuverability for increased speed as far back as the mid-1930s after the experience of the brief border war with the Soviets in which the Polikarpov I-16 savaged the IJAAF by using its superior speed and diving abilities to avoid close combat with the more maneuverable Japanese fighters and conduct hit-and-run attacks. Based on the experience, Nakajima's engineers contracted the services of two French engineers from the Dewointine aircraft company to develop the Ki-12 experimental fighter that in 1935 was more modern and faster than anything else the IJAAF was fielding but it remained experimental as it was deemed too radical for the established fighter design philosophy of the day.</div>
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The lead engineer at Nakajima just prior to the outbreak of the Second World War was Professor Hideo Itokawa (<span style="font-style: italic;">who later would become the father of the post-war Japanese space program and have an asteroid named for him in honor of his contributions to space science</span>) revisited the ideas behind the Ki-12 experimental fighter by using a short-span wing which would make for a faster fighter that if highly-loaded, could also be a stable gun platform at high speed. His work is what resulted in the Ki-44 Shoki- a powerful radial engine but a comparatively stubby wing with much higher wing loading that other Japanese fighters.</div>
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By 1940 there was a greater willingness in the IJAAF for new ideas and it was decided by the Japanese High Command that the Ki-44 Shoki prototypes would be combat tested<span style="font-style: italic;"> before</span> going into production. On 15 September 1941 the IJAAF created an evaluation squadron called the 47th Dokuritsu Hiko Chutai (Independent Air Squadron) equipped with the seven prototype Shoki fighters that were quite literally handbuilt by Nakajima. The initial plans were to combat test the Shoki prototypes in China, but with Japan's declaration of war in December on the Allies, the so-called "Kingfisher" Chutai and its seven prototypes were sent to Malaya for use against the British. The Shokis ranged across the peninsula as the invading Japanese forces pushed the British southward to Singapore, scoring victory after victory on hapless British fighters.</div>
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By early 1942, Nakajima began work on 40 pre-production Shokis which had improved armament and other modifications such as a combat flap that was a modified Fowler flap that could be extended rearward with little deflection to improve the lift from the Shoki's stubby wings. As production kinks were being worked out, the Doolittle Raid in May 1942 laid bare the vulnerability to the home islands to Allied air attack and the 47th Chutai was recalled from Malaya for home defense duties where its speed and rate of climb made it a natural bomber interceptor. The last pre-production Ki-44 Shoki was delivered in October 1942 and by the end of 1942, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force formally accepted the Shoki for operational use- <span style="font-style: italic;">after</span> the prototypes had been in combat for nearly a year!</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEicjCf01ZBMgEr86duPSEc-WVpUTDkjYbpHt12lqtn0AbIzxm8spep0UeA9gtjH-fKHA4Y8axXZCm651N434FVbrXae44QJHIR1HyHmT0JAncZiXdkHWfLmltGkUEHoWpLY3CHaZt8Ejyc/s1600/Shoki_boxart.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="256" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEicjCf01ZBMgEr86duPSEc-WVpUTDkjYbpHt12lqtn0AbIzxm8spep0UeA9gtjH-fKHA4Y8axXZCm651N434FVbrXae44QJHIR1HyHmT0JAncZiXdkHWfLmltGkUEHoWpLY3CHaZt8Ejyc/s400/Shoki_boxart.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Shoki's performance led it to be used primarily in the defense of the Home Islands<br />
<i>(Hasegawa)</i></td></tr>
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In the fall of 1944 the last of the 1,225 Ki-44 Shoki fighters was delivered to a home defense unit. By that point in the war, the Shoki was used primarily with reasonable success against the B-29 Superfortresses that were ranging all across the home islands. After the war, the Nationalist Chinese operated the Shoki against the Communists, who themselves had their own Shoki squadrons which were flown by Japanese mercenary pilots. The last Shokis used by the People's Liberation Army Air Force were retired in the early 1950s. No Shokis survived to this day, but a college in Xian, China, has a wing center section. </div>
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Further reading:</div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2015/04/the-mitsubishi-j8m-shusui-tragic.html" target="_blank">The Mitsubishi J8M Shusui: The Tragic History of the Japanese Komet Fighter</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2012/08/the-coming-kamikaze-threat-in-world-war.html" target="_blank">The Coming Kamikaze Threat in World War II We Never Faced</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2011/05/master-sgt-red-erwin-one-of-many-heroes.html" target="_blank">Master Sgt. Red Erwin, One of Many Heroes</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2011/10/ad-hoc-lashup-that-resulted-in-japans.html" target="_blank">The Ad Hoc Lashup That Resulted in Japan's Best Fighter of World War II</a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">Source:</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">Air Enthusiast, </span>Volume 3, Number 1 (July 1972), "Nakajima Demonology: The Story of the Shoki" by William Green, managing editor, Gordon Swanborough, editor. Pilot Press Ltd, 1972, p17-25.</span></div>
JP Santiagohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02743418658732808826noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3685907526691141099.post-59798263810953073872016-04-14T23:00:00.000-05:002016-04-14T23:00:14.279-05:00VFP-62 "Eyes of the Fleet" and the Bay of Pigs Invasion<div style="text-align: justify;">
Over the course of the Second World War, photoreconnaissance in the US Navy progressed from rudimentary handheld photography from whatever aircraft was available to reconnaissance variants of carrier fighters equipped with cameras in fuselage bays. The reconnaissance mission was carried out usually by the fighter squadrons in the carrier air wing (which were still called carrier air groups back then) and in the years after the war, small groups of combat-seasoned photo recon pilots were usually attached to carrier air groups but no standard training, syllabus or even squadron existed for the reconnaissance mission. That all began to change in 1948 when Fleet Air Service Squadron THEE formed a photographic detachment at NAS Norfolk, Virginia. On 8 January 1949, 13 officers and 88 enlisted personnel gathered to form Composite Squadron SIXTY-TWO (VC-62) at Norfolk, with a sister squadron, VC-61, formed on the West Coast at NAS Miramar, California, to serve the Pacific Fleet. The squadrons were tasked to train and perform the photo reconnaissance mission. The first aircraft of the units were photo variants of the Bearcat and Corsair- the Grumman F8F-2P (the P suffix designating a recon variant) and the Vought F4U-4P and -5P. Though specialized for the recon mission, that's a loosely used term since the aircraft carried a single camera in a fuselage bay and the pilots were still considered fighter pilots and VC-61 and VC-62's training regimen still required proficiency in gunnery, rocketry and bombing missions with extra emphasis on navigation. </div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A VFP-62 F2H-2P Banshee aboard the USS Franklin D. Roosevelt<br /><i>(Wikipedia)</i></td></tr>
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Of the two squadrons, VC-62 would soon become famous. The unit was transferred from Norfolk to NAS Jacksonville and converted to the McDonnell F2H-2P Banshee which was a quantum leap in performance over the Bearcats and Corsairs as not only was the Banshee jet powered, but its extended nose bay housed multiple cameras that could photograph targets from over 40,000 feet. In 1953, VC-62 added the swept wing Grumman F9F-6P Cougar to its existing fleet of Banshees. Camera technology also progressed in this time to allow sharper and better quality photos from aircraft moving at much higher speeds than piston-engined aircraft. The arrival of the jets also meant that the pilots no longer had guns to shoot back- the recon variants of the jets were unarmed, requiring the use of speed, maneuverability and sharp mission planning to get home with the photos. On 2 July 1956, VC-62 was redesigned VFP-62 and VC-61 became VFP-63. Two years later, VFP-62 got one of the finest naval photo reconnaissance aircraft in the form of the Vought F8U-1P Crusader. </div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A VFP-62 F9F-6P Cougar overflies the USS Essex<br /><i>(Wikipedia)</i></td></tr>
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The Crusader wasn't just fast, it also had the latest in state of the art camera technology in the -1P recon variant. At the speed of the Crusader, especially at low levels, the images would have been blurred, but the four cameras of the -1P Crusader had what was called IMC (Image Motion Compensation). A set of avionics boxes with controls in the cockpit coordinated the aircraft's speed and altitude with the camera equipment. During a photo run, a vacuum sucked the film frame against a moving shuttle- when the shutter opened, the shuttle would move the film frame in the opposite direction of flight at a speed that canceled out the forward speed of the Crusader for that brief moment. When the shutter closed, the vacuum released the film frame and the next frame entered the shuttle. This process took place with each of the Crusader's four cameras multiple times in a second depending upon the target, the aircraft's speed and altitude, and ambient lighting conditions. The IMC electronics also made sure the frames overlapped the ground to insure a required level of coverage of of the target. </div>
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In 1958, the same year as the conversion to the F8U-1P Crusader, VFP-62 moved to NAS Cecil Field outside of Jacksonville as it had outgrown its Jacksonville base. It was an unusually large squadron compared to most Crusader fighter squadrons on account that it sent detachments of carrier air wings- a typical photo detachment might be three aircraft with 35 officers and enlisted men. The squadron could have multiple detachments deployed worldwide at any given moment. </div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg2uEm4KEFH2aK0bzpvP1VY-hrFAQHCsdeW7BtRypD_8NDRtWZfsrZf2SIn07UQy6LQK1afugCVnd0z_oEtQeKOuiVuIaV1pS7WEWBYVx0ARzGIpOzKb7tYj9HJebGTJCZn27GZCApexGU/s1600/VFP62_refuel.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="230" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg2uEm4KEFH2aK0bzpvP1VY-hrFAQHCsdeW7BtRypD_8NDRtWZfsrZf2SIn07UQy6LQK1afugCVnd0z_oEtQeKOuiVuIaV1pS7WEWBYVx0ARzGIpOzKb7tYj9HJebGTJCZn27GZCApexGU/s320/VFP62_refuel.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A VFP-62 F8U-1P Crusader tanks from an A4D-2 Skyhawk<br /><i>(Wikipedia)</i></td></tr>
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On 1 January 1959, the revolutionary forces of Fidel Castro defeated Fulgencio Batista's regime in Cuba, putting the island nation square in the communist sphere of influence. Needless to say, having a Soviet client state just 90 miles from American shores would greatly influence the foreign and defense policy of both the Eisenhower and Kennedy administrations. John F. Kennedy won the 1960 presidential elections against Richard Nixon on a strong anti-Castro platform, campaigning that Nixon, as Eisenhower's vice-president, was weak on Cuba. Unfortunately for Kennedy, this put him in a position after entering office of accepting the plan for the invasion of Cuba by US-trained Cuban exiles at a location called the Bay of Pigs. On 18 April 1961, a force of 1,400 Cuban exiles landed ashore at the Bay of Pigs as the Cuban Expeditionary Force (CEF) with plans to start a counter-revolution against Castro. Kennedy was keen to limit the appearance and extent of American involvement and the CIA-trained CEF force had its fleet of Douglas B-26 Invader aircraft cut in half as part of that effort. The young president wanted the CEF to look like a home grown force than a US-backed force to prevent a superpower confrontation. The operation was doomed from the start and when it became clear that the CEF was in over its head against Castro's forces the following day, Kennedy ordered a secret photo assessment of the situation on the ground at the Bay of Pigs. </div>
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VFP-62 had three F8U-1Ps as part of Detachment 41 assigned to the <i>USS Independence</i> which was in the area for contingency operations should US air support be needed (which it was but was never authorized). Det 41's commander was ordered to paint over any military markings and even the maintenance stencils were overpainted in gray. Roman numerals I, II, and III, were painted inside the wheel wells to tell the aircraft apart as they were completely sanitized of any exterior markings. The Crusaders were identified as "Gray Ghost" and then "One", "Two", or "Three" during flight operations. They conducted a series of flights over the Bay of Pigs which confirmed that the CEF was about to be overrun by Castro's forces. It was hoped that the low level overflights of the area might give Castro's forces pause that the CEF might be defended by US airstrikes and give the beleaguered exiles time to regroup, but this wasn't to be the case and the CEF was roundly defeated with those not killed taken prisoner. </div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh8CSvVzvYTdkPl3WLm5iq1Vt7j2HtyaHkeQx8QblPjicle7tYUZl5YAecI0OF0a8n70G4SxElhpyKaXOwRVoc8yHegnrGM-QyDm-CXIrEcAzLR12vNfd_YuRJxkrOWFNcWIJ55rvOWspI/s1600/VFP62_Indy.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="209" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh8CSvVzvYTdkPl3WLm5iq1Vt7j2HtyaHkeQx8QblPjicle7tYUZl5YAecI0OF0a8n70G4SxElhpyKaXOwRVoc8yHegnrGM-QyDm-CXIrEcAzLR12vNfd_YuRJxkrOWFNcWIJ55rvOWspI/s320/VFP62_Indy.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A VFP-62 F8U-1P Crusader prepares to launch from the USS Independence<br /><i>(Wikipedia)</i></td></tr>
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The <i>USS Independence</i> and its carrier air wing were awarded the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal for its clandestine operation, but even after the disaster at the Bay of Pigs had passed, VFP-62 was requested to remain in the area to keep an eye on Cuba. Up until the Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962, the squadron would make periodic flights to Cuba, mostly staging out of NAS Cecil Field. Flights of two aircraft would then "pretend" to making practice approaches to NAS Key West and dash to Cuba at low level. Other missions had two Crusaders appear as a flight transiting to Guantanamo Bay and then dash down at low level before recovering at Homestead AFB in Florida. </div>
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VFP-62's missions would soon take on added urgency as October 1962 approached. But that's a subject for a future article here at Tails Through Time! </div>
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<i>Further reading: </i></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2010/11/voughts-not-so-fearsome-f6u-pirate.html" target="_blank">Vought's Not-So-Fearsome F6U Pirate</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2015/12/the-first-american-covert-overflights.html" target="_blank">The First American Covert Overflights of the Soviet Union</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2010/08/u-2s-antecedent-martin-rb-57d-canberra.html" target="_blank">The U-2's Antecedent: The Martin RB-57D Canberra</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2010/09/taiwans-secret-recon-voodoos.html" target="_blank">Taiwan's Secret Recon Voodoos</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2011/01/project-palladium-testing-soviet-radars.html" target="_blank">Project Palladium: Testing Soviet Radars</a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;"><b>Source: </b><i>Blue Moon Over Cuba: Aerial Reconnaissance during the Cuban Missile Crisis</i> by Capt. William B. Ecker USN and Kenneth V. Jack. Osprey Publishing, 2012, pp 33-50.</span></div>
JP Santiagohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02743418658732808826noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3685907526691141099.post-3569577661148073002016-04-12T21:40:00.002-05:002016-04-13T11:43:47.700-05:00CHECK SIX: Ships Sunk or Damaged by the Yokosuka MXY7 Ohka<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj0OVVZ4LnjVxLDpx6D5FXAiRVhg4qWof8Wiq8efIEphUTw4R-1RHf8Vx5iMABs1Dx8n70BVHPqpYRFYhMvOQWdF62l8kCrRhYebjFgGXOsT8lhYw1IegFb_brxO8gB9J-09WxA_fnMelg/s1600/OhkaBetty.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="225" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj0OVVZ4LnjVxLDpx6D5FXAiRVhg4qWof8Wiq8efIEphUTw4R-1RHf8Vx5iMABs1Dx8n70BVHPqpYRFYhMvOQWdF62l8kCrRhYebjFgGXOsT8lhYw1IegFb_brxO8gB9J-09WxA_fnMelg/s400/OhkaBetty.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Hasegawa model kit box art showing a G4M releasing an Ohka<br />
<i>(Hasegawa Models)</i></td></tr>
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The Yokosuka MXY7 Ohka ("Cherry Blossom") kamikaze flying bomb was conceived by Ensign Mitsuo Ohta of the 405th Kokutai of the Imperial Japanese Navy. He was considering how to overcome the dense anti-aircraft defenses of Allied warships. His design solution, aided by students from the University of Tokyo, was for a rocket propelled kamikaze aircraft that would be flying too fast in its terminal approach to the target to be shot down. He submitted his ideas to the IJN for consideration and his proposals were refined further by engineers at the IJN's Yokosuka Naval Air Technical Arsenal which resulted in the MXY7 design which was essentially an anti shipping missile with a 2600 lb warhead with a kamikaze pilot as its guidance system. </div>
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The Ohka had three rocket engines which could be ignited at once or in sequence. Dropped by the Mitsubishi G4M "Betty", the Ohka had a range of approximately 23 miles and had a terminal approach speed between 580-620 mph, significantly faster than piston engined kamikazes. </div>
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The Yokosuka arsenal would build 155 Ohkas while the Kamisagura Air Arsenal would built over 600 Ohkas. It was planned to debut the Ohkas at the Battle of Leyte Gulf, but the ships transporting the Ohkas to the Philippines were sunk enroute. The Ohka's operational debut would be in the Battle of Okinawa with mixed results:</div>
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12 April 1945: USS Mannert L. Abele, destroyer, sunk by one, possibly two Ohkas.</div>
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12 April 1945: USS Jeffers, a destroyer converted to a minesweeper, damaged.</div>
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12 April 1945: USS Stanly, a destroyer, damaged.</div>
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4 May 1945: USS Gayety, a minesweeper, damaged.</div>
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4 May 1945: USS Shea, a light destroyer coverted to a minelayer, damaged.</div>
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11 May 1945: USS Hugh W. Hadley, a destroyer, damaged.</div>
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Interestingly, the captain of a support vessel who witnessed the sinking of the USS Mannert L. Abele had this to say: <i>"It is difficult to say what it was that hit the DD 733. This officer personally saw what appeared to be two (2) planes orbiting in a northerly direction from the DD 733, and then suddenly, what appeared to be, one plane, accelerated at a terrific rate, too fast for us to fire at. This plane dove at an angle of approximately 30 degrees, starting at about four miles [7.5 km] away. Since we had no air search radar, the above statements are merely my own conclusions."</i><br />
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That captain's report was the first to indicate that the Ohka was operational. </div>
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<i>Further reading:</i></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2012/08/the-coming-kamikaze-threat-in-world-war.html" target="_blank">The Coming Kamikaze Threat We Never Faced</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2016/04/check-six-1937-kamikaze-flight-that.html" target="_blank">The 1937 Kamikaze Flight That Didn't End in a Fiery Crash</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2015/01/task-force-38s-unheralded-contribution.html" target="_blank">Task Force 38's Unheralded Contribution to the Fall of Japan</a></div>
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JP Santiagohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02743418658732808826noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3685907526691141099.post-27721665182049082662016-04-09T23:00:00.000-05:002016-04-09T23:00:01.488-05:00The WW1 French Fighter That Got More Fame Than It Deserved: The Nieuport 28<div style="text-align: justify;">
Aviation author Peter Bowers once said of the Nieuport 28 biplane fighter of the First World War "The French Nieuport 28....is unique in aviation history for having achieved a considerable degree of fame that it didn't really deserve." The penultimate Nieuport biplane fighter design was rejected by the French for front line service and that might well have been the end of the story for not just the aircraft but the Nieuport company as well had it not been for the American Expeditionary Force's need for a fighter aircraft as the better SPAD biplane's production was devoted to filling the needs of the French Air Service. Since it was available, it would be the Nieuport 28's claim to fame to be the first combat aircraft to wear American colors into the First World War. </div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgLa48pQzQZwuG5UkwRSsjtrN0sbDqXUpX4qkLmxoLoHXEX04PzvTBdCMG2DAveg3jXxZz6KURezKx020qvtxIxPHkiRVMsHnQ2AnJiiGhTErMU9rQSIAMLd-7rwLQfkZf_TstY6tql5mc/s1600/Nieuport28_USAF.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="210" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgLa48pQzQZwuG5UkwRSsjtrN0sbDqXUpX4qkLmxoLoHXEX04PzvTBdCMG2DAveg3jXxZz6KURezKx020qvtxIxPHkiRVMsHnQ2AnJiiGhTErMU9rQSIAMLd-7rwLQfkZf_TstY6tql5mc/s320/Nieuport28_USAF.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">This N.28 wears the "kicking mule" emblem of the 95th Aero Squadron. The kicking mule is still used by the 95th Reconnaissance Squadron that flies the Rivet Joint.<br /><i>(USAF Museum)</i></td></tr>
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The story of the Nieuport 28 (N.28C-1 was its company designation, but for brevity reasons I'll just refer to it here on out as the N.28) begins with the formation of an aircraft company by Edouard and Charles Nieuport in 1909, at first devoted to producing aircraft components like engine ignition systems. Both brothers were pilots and began working on their own monoplane designs which were contemporaries of the more famous Blériot XI design that made the first air crossing of the English Channel on 25 July 1909. After a series of prototype designs, the Nieuport brothers reorganized the company in 1911 to focus more on their own aircraft designs as Nieuport et Deplante. Edouard was killed while flying that year and with the help of aviation-minded investors, the company was renamed Société Anonyme des Établissements Nieuport with the remaining brother, Charles, heading the company before his untimely demise also while flying later that year. Swiss engineer Franz Schneider, who would become more famous for his German designs in the First World War, briefly held the post of chief designer at Nieuport until he left for Germany in 1913. French engineer Gustave Delage took over in January 1914 and began work on a sesquiplane racer- not a true biplane as the lower wing was much narrower than the top wing. For lightness, Delage used only a single spar in each wing and used a "V" brace for the wing struts, the apex of the "V" being on the lower "half" wing. By the time the First World War had broken out, Delage's racing aircraft design became the Nieuport 10 fighter which in turn was developed into the faster Nieuport 12 fighter. The V-strut and sesquiplane layout would be the pattern of a series of further developments of the Nieuport fighter over the course of the war. By 1917, the current design was the Nieuport 17- though light and maneuverable, it couldn't deal with the latest crop of German fighters as it was underarmed (it only had a single machine gun when twin guns were pretty much the air combat standard by that point) and the single spar sesquiplane structure wasn't strong enough for extended air combat with the latest German designs. It was painfully obvious that Gustave Delage's design layout had reached its limits. </div>
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With the French Air Service considering the SPAD S.VII fighter, Delage set about to create a better Nieuport fighter and broke with his long-standing design tradition by adopting a true biplane layout with conventional two spar wings and a twin machine gun armament with the Nieuport 28. With a longer fuselage but keeping the same cross section, the N.28 looked sleeker than previous Nieuport designs. Both the upper and lower wings now had two spars for strength and the chord of the lower wing was slightly less than that of the upper wing with Delage abandoning his favored sesquiplane layout. In contrast to the angular wing tips of his previous designs, the N.28 had rounded elliptical wingtips with conventional two strut wing braces attached to the spars, again, breaking with the V-strut configuration of his past designs (which were sometimes referred to as "V-Strutters"). Because of the narrowness of the fuselage, the twin Vickers 0.303 machine guns were offset- one left of center ahead of the pilot and the other nearly on left fuselage side. This was the result of the original N.28 prototype having only a single gun offset to the left ahead of the pilot. The need for a second gun meant that the fuselage was too narrow for two guns side by side ahead of the pilot, the second gun was offset to the left and below of first gun. </div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgPm-XmOOLY6Cj4Uvh4b_8epCY4XsVOkCzqmlS_psdH9cWzlSgn0NrpGS0o9mF6W9agQSCldK3Ms4QPZpemj0kkJC6z3sktIFSg5BMSrsiEyYoRY73aJDfXAH7TWurLQjIeShaVMHaQajs/s1600/Nieuport28_Rickenbacker.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgPm-XmOOLY6Cj4Uvh4b_8epCY4XsVOkCzqmlS_psdH9cWzlSgn0NrpGS0o9mF6W9agQSCldK3Ms4QPZpemj0kkJC6z3sktIFSg5BMSrsiEyYoRY73aJDfXAH7TWurLQjIeShaVMHaQajs/s320/Nieuport28_Rickenbacker.jpg" width="302" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Eddie Rickenbacker and his N.28. Note the offset guns and the Hat-in-the-Ring emblem <br />still used to this day by the 94th Fighter Squadron which flies F-22s from Langley AFB.<br /><i>(Wikipedia)</i></td></tr>
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In keeping with past Nieuport designs, a rotary engine was used from either the Gnome or Le Rhone engine manufacturer. To keep the engines lightweight, they lacked carburetors and could not be throttled down- as a result, the N.28 had what was called a "blip switch" on the control stick that would briefly turn off the engine when power needed to be reduced, such as landing. The Le Rhone rotary engines were a bit more flexible and could be throttled between 900 to 1250 rpm, but even at the lowest setting it was still too much power for the N.28, so the "blip switch" was still necessary regardless of the engine type installed. Later engines would feature additional switches that could cut out certain cylinders on the engines to reduce power, but these systems would prove to be continual maintenance headaches. The late model Gnome engines boasted 100 hp which for the N.28 was a lot of power, but to keep engine weight down, the engine cylinders had only a single valve instead of the traditional two valves and as such, were referred to as "Monosoupape" engines which worked not unlike a two stroke engine. Unfortunately this was very wasteful when it come to fuel consumption and incompletely burned fuel posted a constant engine fire hazard for N.28 pilots. </div>
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While the engine issues alone might have been enough cause for the French Air Service to reject the N.28, the performance gains offered were eclipsed by the SPAD S.XIII which became the standard French fighter of the period. That might have been the end of the Nieuport story at that point had it not been for the arrival of the American Expeditionary Force in France. Lacking a suitable fighter aircraft of their own, the Americans turned to the French for the SPAD S.XIII, but all of SPAD's production was committed to French needs and none were available for the AEF. The French offered the N.28 which wasn't ideal but it was better than nothing and Nieuport would build 297 N.28s for the AEF. </div>
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The introduction into service was lackluster at best. The First Pursuit Group assigned the N.28 to four of its squadrons- the 27th, 94th, 95th, and 147th Aero Squadrons. The 95th AS arrived first to the front in February 1918, but the N.28s were delivered without guns! To boost morale and show that that the Americans were ready for action, Major Raoul Lufbery, a veteran of the Lafayette Escadrille of American volunteers, led unarmed patrols over the front lines the following month. It was an inauspicious start to American air combat operations that the first fighters in action lacked armament. On 14 April 1918, the 94th's sister squadron, the 95th Aero Squadron, made its first armed patrol with three N.28s- with the flight lead aborting due to weather, the other two pilots, Lt. Reed Chambers and Lt. Eddie Rickenbacker, decided to press on with their patrol. Returning to the airfield, two German fighters were overhead, apparently lost above the fog. The second patrol launched with Lt. Alan Winslow and Lt. Douglas Campbell and they downed the two Germans, Winslow scoring the first victory for the AEF and Campbell (soon to become the first American ace) getting credit for the second German by forcing it to crash land.</div>
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In the weeks of air combat that followed, the Americans found the N.28 had other short comings besides its troublesome rotary engine. During extended dives, the upper wings tended to shed their fabric covering, often taking the wing ribs forward of the forward wing spar with it. Several American pilots were lost due to the wing failures. Even Eddie Rickenbacker nursed home a crippled N.28 when he lost most of his upper wing's fabric. By the time Nieuport had a fix for the problem, adequate SPAD S.XIIIs became available and the Americans quickly converted to the superior SPAD fighter in July 1918. After the last N.28s were built for the AEF squadrons, Nieuport switched over to license production of SPAD fighters in an ironic twist. By August 1918, the last N.28s were phased out from the AEF in favor of the SPAD. </div>
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Despite the shortcomings of the N.28, the Americans maintained a favorable win-to-loss ratio, the most appreciated quality of the N.28 being its maneuverability. The kill ratio was about 3:1, respectable given the shortcomings of the N.28 and the relative inexperience of the American pilots early on. By the time the four squadrons had converted to the SPAD, the kill ratio had slipped to 1:1 on account of there being more veteran German pilots in combat than earlier in the N.28's combat career. </div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglbfcLJc0zOtUColNFFGqxXDeAAbn6ZkGR2DRL1vOM1oX2RuSObgn9yQ44jKCnkPocR4rzjiAFncNxnztfU_aLXS4YHUe5nLwKH2TtAeGrVCGMuJHDiowhPFHte9jWsEUxgxEbqLLwvz8/s1600/Nieuport28_Navy.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="260" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglbfcLJc0zOtUColNFFGqxXDeAAbn6ZkGR2DRL1vOM1oX2RuSObgn9yQ44jKCnkPocR4rzjiAFncNxnztfU_aLXS4YHUe5nLwKH2TtAeGrVCGMuJHDiowhPFHte9jWsEUxgxEbqLLwvz8/s320/Nieuport28_Navy.jpeg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">An N.28 flies off the turret platform of either the USS Oklahoma or USS Pennsylvania<br /><i>(US Navy)</i></td></tr>
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Following the First World War, about 50 N.28s that did not see combat service over France were shipped to the United States and used by the US Navy as gunnery observation aircraft. Small fly-off platforms were built atop some battleship turrets and the light weight and rapid acceleration of the N.28 allowed them to be operated off these platforms. Flotation gear and hydrovanes were fitted that allowed the N.28s to be recovered from water landings. </div>
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<i>Further reading: </i></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2016/02/the-flanders-air-campaign-of-1917-first.html" target="_blank">The Flanders Air Campaign of 1917: The First Modern Air War</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2015/09/the-aircraft-operated-from-submarines.html" target="_blank">Aircraft Operated from Submarines in the First World War</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2010/02/captain-murray-f.html" target="_blank">The First Torpedo Bomber: The Shorts 184 of the First World War</a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;"><b>Sources: </b><i>Profile Publications No. 79: The Nieuport N.28C-1</i> by Peter Bowers. Profile Publications, 1966. National Museum of the US Air Force, Wikipedia. </span></div>
JP Santiagohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02743418658732808826noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3685907526691141099.post-79805608438528039242016-04-07T21:26:00.000-05:002016-04-07T21:26:47.009-05:00CHECK SIX: Trans World Airlines Goes All-Jet<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjynDjizJc92O5_U8RFDLiNtaP9EM5G42kAfdjMXZNBccJAk64nIsvukTiR11_5y53sRy2qRBCu2fqCcF_pdoOeBPBLBoa3YMkGKOXZwSfD_fO-GEXdKQCl3s9oK711p3Yz8Qy0E1nhbpw/s1600/TWAALLJETAD-vi.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjynDjizJc92O5_U8RFDLiNtaP9EM5G42kAfdjMXZNBccJAk64nIsvukTiR11_5y53sRy2qRBCu2fqCcF_pdoOeBPBLBoa3YMkGKOXZwSfD_fO-GEXdKQCl3s9oK711p3Yz8Qy0E1nhbpw/s320/TWAALLJETAD-vi.jpg" width="241" /></a></div>
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As the sun rose on 7 April 1967, history was made as TWA became first US airline to go all pure-jet, having retired its Constellations and Starliners the night prior. The last TWA passenger Connie service was Flight 249 JFK-Philadelphia-Pittsburgh-Columbus-Louisville-St. Louis. The next day the last one flew to storage in Kansas City where there were 35 other Super Constellations and Starliners awaiting their fate. The night of 6 April, ground service crews put a booklet in all the seat back pockets of the TWA passenger aircraft titled "<i>Props Are For Boats</i>". </div>
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The introduction of the Boeing 727 and Douglas DC-9 accelerated the Constellation retirement which by the 1960s were relegated to short haul domestic routes and some cargo flying. Two Connies soldiered on after 7 April on cargo-only duties, though. From the introduction of the Lockheed Constellation with TWA's dramatic 1944 delivery flight to Washington flown by Howard Hughes to its retirement to the 1967 retirement from passenger service, the Constellation family served TWA for 23 years with over 140 examples. </div>
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Within two years, by 1969, Trans World Airlines had surpassed the iconic Pan American in the number of passengers carried across the Atlantic. </div>
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<i>Further reading: </i></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2016/02/amidst-internal-turmoil-twa-orders.html" target="_blank">Amidst Internal Turmoil, TWA Orders the Boeing 727</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2010/08/history-of-twa-moonliner.html" target="_blank">The History of the TWA Moonliner</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2010/11/cadillac-of-constellation-line.html" target="_blank">The Cadillac of the Constellation Line</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2010/10/holy-grail-of-nonstop-transcontinental.html" target="_blank">The Holy Grail of Nonstop Transcontinental Service</a></div>
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<i><span style="font-size: xx-small;">(Photo: FlyerTalk Forums)</span></i></div>
</i>JP Santiagohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02743418658732808826noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3685907526691141099.post-16839254096794450172016-04-06T21:05:00.002-05:002016-04-06T21:05:32.428-05:00CHECK SIX: The 1937 Kamikaze Flight That Didn't End with a Fiery Crash<div style="text-align: justify;">
"CHECK SIX" is new little feature I'm going to be introducing here and there here at Tails Through Time as a little filler in-between my primary articles. The name for this feature is because they're going to be quick looks back in aviation history that don't necessarily warrant my more in-depth articles. The titles for these short tidbits will always start off with "CHECK SIX". </div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgTS8wmCFyDuykbWfvvHCIkySCEGDoYS2Jexnf135CwXxhBjz3dL7Xb8vG_977JHIvtk_mZGtUCyQYwEFwqQ5fKjOoeqICGNMHLn4ZDm1cP7nlaSOPUmq3k82NNHaj2mbbqxPSTXuBWoCw/s1600/Mitsubishi_Ki15-Kamikaze.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="140" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgTS8wmCFyDuykbWfvvHCIkySCEGDoYS2Jexnf135CwXxhBjz3dL7Xb8vG_977JHIvtk_mZGtUCyQYwEFwqQ5fKjOoeqICGNMHLn4ZDm1cP7nlaSOPUmq3k82NNHaj2mbbqxPSTXuBWoCw/s320/Mitsubishi_Ki15-Kamikaze.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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This particular Mitsubishi Ki-15 with the registration J-BAAI was the first Japanese aircraft to fly to Europe when it left Tokyo on this day (April 6) in 1937 for a oodwill flight to London Croydon Airport. Sponsored by the Asahi Shimbun newspaper as part of the celebrations for the coronation of King George VI, the plane was named "Kamikaze-go" and flew Tokyo-Taipei-Hanoi-Vientiane-Calcutta-Karachi-Basra-Baghdad-Athens-Rome-Paris-London. The pilot, Masaaki Iinuma, was only 26 at the time and both he and his navigator, Kenji Tsukagoshi, were awarded the Legion of Honor by the French. </div>
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Total elapsed time from departure in Tokyo was 94 hours, of which 51 hours were actual flying time. Iinuma later served as a test pilot in Japan and was killed in action in December 1941 in Cambodia. The navigator, Tsukagoshi, was on the Tachikawa Ki-77 prototype when it set of for a flight to Germany from Singapore in 1943, but the Ki-77 disappeared over the Indian Ocean. </div>
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The Japanese classical music composer Hisato Ohzawa wrote the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bp8h2TxXznA" target="_blank">Piano Concerto No.3 "Kamikaze"</a> in honor of this record breaking flight. If you're a fan of the composer Sergei Prokofiev, Ohzawa's work is in that Impressionistic style. </div>
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<i><span style="font-size: xx-small;">(Photo: Wikipedia)</span></i></div>
</i>JP Santiagohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02743418658732808826noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3685907526691141099.post-91377410041919948722016-03-08T23:00:00.001-06:002016-03-08T23:00:02.921-06:00The Ryan FR-1 Fireball and F2R Dark Shark: An Evolutionary Dead-End<div style="text-align: justify;">
When the US Navy initiated the development of its first jet fighter, the McDonnell FD-1/FH-1 Phantom, in 1942, not only did it hedge its bets on McDonnell's design by <a href="http://bit.ly/auPhhC">carrier testing the Lockheed P-80</a> Shooting Star, but it also initiated a back up program at the insistence of the Navy's Bureau of Aeronautics (BuAer) for a mixed-powerplant fighter that combined a conventional piston radial engine with a jet engine. There were still a lot of unknowns about the operation of jet aircraft from fleet carriers and the concept of a mixed powerplant fighter would combine what was known- that a conventional radial engine had the performance for a carrier takeoff and a wave-off from landing and that a jet engine could provide a boost for high speed performance. At the same time as the start of the FD-1/FH-1 program, BuAer held a competition for a mixed-powerplant fighter which was won by San Diego-based Ryan Aeronautical Corporation which started work in 1943 on the prototype for the FR-1 Fireball.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Ryan FR-1 Fireball<br /><i>(Wikipedia)</i></td></tr>
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The Fireball's radial engine was a Wright R-1820 Cyclone 9-cylinder radial engine generating 1,425 horsepower. The R-1820 was used on a variety of World War 2 aircraft from the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress to the Douglas SBD Dauntless and Curtiss SB2C Helldiver. This was a surprising choice given that the standard engine of the Navy fighters of the day was the 2,000 horsepower Pratt & Whitney R-2800 18-cylinder Double Wasp. The jet engine in the rear fuselage, fed by wing root intakes, was a General Electric I-16 (later redesignated J31) developing approximately 1,600 lbs of thrust. The I-16/J31 was a GE production version of the Whittle W.1 centrifugal flow turbojet and was the first production jet engine built in the United States. Outside of the Fireball, two of the same jet engine were used on the Bell P-59 Airacomet. Development of the three prototype XFR-1 airframes proceeded along remarkably smoothly and the prototype made its first flight on 25 June 1944 powered only by its piston engine. On the third flight, the I-16 engine was fitted to the prototype and used successfully. </div>
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The Fireball boasted excellent cockpit visibility but one of its other unique features was it was the first production carrier-borne aircraft to have a tricycle landing gear. This was done primarily out of necessity to elevate the jet engine exhaust up and away from the wooden decks of the Navy's fleet carriers. Despite the loss of the three prototypes, the Navy was anxious to field the FR-1 Fireball and had already ordered 100 aircraft a year before the first flight of the prototype. With satisfactory flight testing and excellent performance, another 600 aircraft were added to the order in 1944. The Navy wanted the Fireballs in the Pacific as a Kamikaze interceptor- Fireballs were planned to be used in combat air patrols, loitering on their radial engines. When inbound Kamikazes were detected on radar, the Fireballs would light up the jet engine and speed off to intercept the enemy. At the end of 1944, the Navy ordered 600 of a faster variant, the FR-2, that had a more powerful R-1820 engine that developed 1,500 horsepower. </div>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhwQNyeW18GrRHONndLZ46bEgbOC-QHVD8T8gMXsseZKLQ-5pn6ID_HNlSW4WzBd3XpJdEKlU4w82uJq4dsQMb4qEDBOX3PRriTFtt-iArqkD6pKig0xe5-tDiOB08Jj_o3i3Ovkaok8hU/s1600/Ryan_FR1formation.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="266" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhwQNyeW18GrRHONndLZ46bEgbOC-QHVD8T8gMXsseZKLQ-5pn6ID_HNlSW4WzBd3XpJdEKlU4w82uJq4dsQMb4qEDBOX3PRriTFtt-iArqkD6pKig0xe5-tDiOB08Jj_o3i3Ovkaok8hU/s320/Ryan_FR1formation.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">VF-66 Fireballs in formation flight<br /><i>(San Diego Air & Space Museum Archives)</i></td></tr>
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Navy fighter squadron VF-66 stood up at NAS North Island where the Ryan plant was located to speed the introduction into service of the Fireball. Instead of the usual operational evaluations and demonstrations, VF-66 was tasked to get the Fireball into action as soon as possible. Unusual for a Navy squadron of the day, VF-66 was made up of senior officers and experienced pilots. Five days after VF-66 stood up on New Year's Day 1945, the first FR-1s were making their initial carrier qualifications aboard the <i>USS Ranger</i> in preparation for combat deployment. The squadron pilots enjoyed flying the FR-1 for its speed and maneuverability. Pilots often would make low passes at area airfields with the front prop feathered to confuse tower and airport personnel. By July 1945 VF-66 was in final preparations to take the FR-1 into combat but it was all for naught when the Pacific War ended the following month with surrender of Japan after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The Fireball was officially unveiled to the public in September 1945 but only 66 FR-1s were produced and delivered before the war ended, the balance of orders for the FR-1 and FR-2 being canceled. After the war in November 1945 a Fireball that suffered a radial engine failure landed on the <i>USS Wake Island</i> to be come the first jet landing on an aircraft carrier, but obviously not intentionally!<br />
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Looking to improve the Fireball's performance, Ryan proposed the FR-3 that would have taken the faster FR-2 design and swapped out the I-16 engine for a more powerful GE I-20 engine that offered 2,000 lbs of thrust. The FR-3 never got built, but Ryan did a contract for a prototype of the FR-4, which used a 3,400-lb thrust Westinghouse J34 engine in the rear fuselage. The XFR-4 did fly, and the main external difference was the relocation of the jet intakes from the wing roots to the lower sides of the nose just aft of the radial engine. Doors could close off the NACA-style flush intakes to keep the jet engine from windmilling and producing drag and small eyelid doors could increase the area of the intake as well. The XFR-4 added 100 mph to the top speed of the Fireball, but only one prototype was built. The small number of FR-1s, however, were withdrawn from service when in 1947 they were found to have significant structural fatigue in the aft fuselage just behind the wings. The last flyable FR-1 arrived at the Naval Air Technical Training Center in Memphis, Tennessee, to be used as a maintenance trainer. <br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhurU2ty0gbKsTEcZ1KX0hiVdL7TNLLTcd_Deq_8JGuUmohukomCUhLZpldTARwL2urFpPWhFM0pPfu3awZLEzAy6HIRv8fK-Q5HBWjAd_pFQ2b7l7uPhsPIV56ZDuHE8DXWKxIk4lbzuw/s1600/Ryan_F2RDarkShark+Configuration.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhurU2ty0gbKsTEcZ1KX0hiVdL7TNLLTcd_Deq_8JGuUmohukomCUhLZpldTARwL2urFpPWhFM0pPfu3awZLEzAy6HIRv8fK-Q5HBWjAd_pFQ2b7l7uPhsPIV56ZDuHE8DXWKxIk4lbzuw/s320/Ryan_F2RDarkShark+Configuration.jpg" width="262" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Ryan F2R Dark Shark configuration<br /><i>(San Diego Air & Space Museum Archives)</i></td></tr>
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It wasn't the end of the road for the Fireball just yet, though. The Powerplant Division of BuAer still remained skeptical of the performance of jets in the carrier landing pattern. Ryan was asked to further develop the FR-1design by replacing the radial engine with a General Electric 1,700-horsepower XT31 turboprop engine. The XT31 was the first turboprop engine designed and built in the United States and was also used on the Air Force's Convair XP-81 turboprop/jet fighter. The new Ryan fighter was designated the F2R Dark Shark and though it retained the wing root intakes and the I-16/J31 engine of the FR-1, it had an impressive climb rate but lacking the drag-reducing jet intakes of the FR-4, it was actually slower than the XFR-4 in level flight. With the large 8-foot prop, the Dark Shark demonstrated improved performance in the carrier landing pattern over the FR-1, but by the time of its first flight in November 1946 McDonnell had proven the practicality of pure-jet carrier operations with the FD-1/FH-1 Phantom and the last resistance within BuAer to pure jets had ended as the Navy decreed that all future fighters after the Grumman F8F Bearcat would be pure jets.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5MERykXeXaZrEw5p-apH2H3FqkTTWTwW4U8gSFzsfR9-evPf9OUBTq4axcHmohkmrAP-UZtH9eT2eoc2dQt0nNxX5YNbMgKBvI4UWmw0mWf2w8XzAau9rNLUTv9dv9sTfCP6041uPQZI/s1600/Ryan_F2RDarkShark.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="235" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5MERykXeXaZrEw5p-apH2H3FqkTTWTwW4U8gSFzsfR9-evPf9OUBTq4axcHmohkmrAP-UZtH9eT2eoc2dQt0nNxX5YNbMgKBvI4UWmw0mWf2w8XzAau9rNLUTv9dv9sTfCP6041uPQZI/s320/Ryan_F2RDarkShark.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Dark Shark in flight<br /><i>(San Diego Air & Space Museum Archives)</i></td></tr>
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The Air Force (then still the USAAF) was impressed with the performance of the XF2R-1 Dark Shark prototype and asked Ryan to make some modifications to evaluate it in competition against the Convair XP-81. What was designated the XF2R-2 featured the NACA flush intakes on the nose of the XFR-4 feeding a Westinghouse J34 engine. The XF2R-2 was ultimately never built other than as a mockup, as the Air Force decided, like the Navy, that mixed powerplant fighters were an evolutionary dead end and the future lay with pure jets. <br />
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I should also mention the Curtiss XF15C which was also planned as a Navy mixed-propulsion fighter. But that aircraft will be getting its own article at a later date here at <i>Tails Through Time</i>!<br />
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<i>Further reading: </i><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2012/08/the-coming-kamikaze-threat-in-world-war.html" target="_blank">The Coming Kamikaze Threat in World War II We Never Faced</a><br />
<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2015/11/refining-anti-submarine-warfare-grumman.html" target="_blank">Refining Anti-Submarine Warfare: The Grumman AF Guardian</a><br />
<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2010/10/groundbreaking-gun-turret-of-tbf.html" target="_blank">The Ground-Breaking Gun Turret of the Grumman TBF Avenger</a><br />
<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2015/02/the-boeing-pbb-sea-ranger-best-flying.html" target="_blank">The Boeing PBB Sea Ranger: The Best Flying Boat at the Worst Possible Time</a></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Source:</b> <i><a href="http://www.amazon.com/U-S-Naval-Air-Superiority-Delevelopment/dp/1580071104?ie=UTF8&tag=airlinebuzz-20&link_code=btl&camp=213689&creative=392969" target="_blank">U.S. Naval Air Superiority- Developement of Shipborne Jet Fighters 1943-1962</a></i><img alt="" border="0" src="http://www.assoc-amazon.com/e/ir?t=airlinebuzz-20&l=btl&camp=213689&creative=392969&o=1&a=1580071104" height="1" style="border: medium none ! important; margin: 0px ! important; padding: 0px ! important;" width="1" /> by Tommy H. Thompson. Specialty Press, 2008, p28-30.</span></div>
JP Santiagohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02743418658732808826noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3685907526691141099.post-50050738657870501282016-03-03T23:00:00.000-06:002016-03-03T23:00:12.577-06:00A Cat of a Different Sort: The Grumman Ag-Cat<div style="text-align: justify;">
Crop dusting expanded considerably after the Second World War with a surplus of pilots, aircraft and engines. Most crop dusting operations used the Boeing/Stearman Kaydet training biplane as it was rugged to deal with the ham fisted flying of students and it was cheap being war surplus as the US military modernized its training fleets in the postwar period. Though plentiful and relatively easy to maintain, a fully loaded Stearman for crop dusting was in most cases underpowered. One of the qualities that made the aircraft so ideal for training was that it required a lot of coordination to minimize its yaw tendencies. It wasn't unusual for a Stearman student to find operational combat aircraft less demanding to fly! That's not to say it was a difficult aircraft in the training environment, but if you were to add a heavy load of chemicals and associated spray equipment, then the Stearman was definitely a handful for crop duster pilots who were flying just a few feet above the ground and then having to climb to avoid treelines and whatever obstacles surrounded most agricultural fields. In 1956, two members of Grumman Aircraft's preliminary design group, Joe Lippert and Arthur Koch, had been touring the Gulf Coast talking to oil industry executives and operators on their requirements for proposed amphibian they were considering. They had a second aircraft in mind as well, a purpose-built crop duster, but the amphibian was their priority at the time of their visit to the Gulf Coast. What Lippert and Koch found was that there was a broad range of needs by the oil industry that they weren't sure a single design could meet all the demands they discussed with prospective customers. Shelving the amphibian project, they then visited farming communities and observed crop dusting operations with considerable interest. Discussions with crop duster pilots revealed some of the problems pilots faced with the near-ubiquitous Stearmans that were the bulk of the crop dusting fleet of the day. While Grumman was not alone in its considerations of a custom-designed crop dusting aircraft, they certainly chose a different design philosophy than other aircraft manufacturers like Piper and Cessna took in their crop dusting designs. </div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Smithsonian's Gruman Ag-Cat<br /><i>(NASM Udvar-Hazy Center)</i></td></tr>
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Lippert in particular was fascinated with how crop duster operations were getting war surplus radial engines for only $25 to replace the existing worn out Continental R-670 seven-cylinder radial engines for their Stearmans. He astutely realized that the best approach for Grumman was a design that used the 220-hp radial engine as they were inexpensive and plentiful on the aftermarket. This would make acquisitions costs more reasonable and potential owners and operators already had experience operating and maintaining the R-670 engine. Lippert and Koch went back to Leroy Grumman and presented their preliminary specification for what would become the Grumman Ag-Cat. However, Grumman was tied up with a lot of military business in the later half of the 1950s and Grumman told the two men that the new project would have to carried out on a shoestring budget. An empty hangar was secured as a workshop and design space along with tooling that was to be scrapped that they thought might be of use. The entire engineering team for the aircraft consisted of only eight people, two of which were Joe Lippert and Arthur Koch. They borrowed craftsmen from the production floor as needed based on who was available- most of these craftsmen were on the verge of retirement but their skills dating back from the 1920s and 1930s would prove valuable to the Lippert and Koch. While the number of craftsmen working varied based on who was available, it usually averaged about thirty individuals. With the craftsmen working right next to the engineers and draftsmen, a tight-knit group that hearkened back to the Grumman's early days formed. </div>
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Unusually for an aircraft program, the design and build of the Ag-Cat began simultaneously on 30 October 1956. Some of the workers came in on weekends and evenings on their own time to help with the project- after all, the last Grumman biplane was the F3F from the 1930s, so there was considerable interest among the "old hands" at Grumman in the Ag-Cat project (which had yet to get the Ag-Cat name at the time). The fuselage mock up was built in Joe Lippert's garage much to his wife's consternation. Ideas from the mock up then went to the hangar in the morning for incorporation in the aircraft as it came together. To keep things simple, a welded tube fuselage was used with removable aluminum panels to allow the interior to be washed out of any chemical residue from crop dusting. The two wings were staggered with the lower wing 35% aft of the top wing to give the aircraft very benign stall characteristics. This way one wing stalled before the other which insured the pilot would always have some level of control in a stall situation. The four wing panels- left and right top and bottom wings, were all interchangeable which eased maintenance and production costs. The aileron on a top wing panel became a flap if that wing panel were used on the lower wing. The nose sloped downward to improve the pilot's vision during low level flying and the airspeed indicator and engine tachometer were put right at the pilot's eye level to avoid having to look down at the instrument panel. The fuselage structure around the cockpit was designed to absorb a 40G crash- given that 10% of crop duster pilots crashed each year of their careers, making the aircraft survivable in the event of a crash was to be a prime selling point- in fact, from the first delivery in 1959, nine years elapsed before the first Ag-Cat crash. The chemical hopper was installed in the fuselage ahead of the cockpit right at the center of gravity to prevent there being any shifts in the center of gravity as the load was expended. The hopper had a 217 gallon capacity for liquids or 1,200 lbs for dry product. The price was established at $12,995 without the engine and propeller, $13,995 if a power plant package was factory installed. </div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhDs4lygDI_jHw35RCwYDgPT6OO6oQupaxpUFgPAKkr6uAJlta2NQ7ZwNQ1Sro9pXDIVhwUabt5a5k3IU3DA7Hq0pfwQ-popwV6W7f3KX9xrxS06dDJ7McueZ_Cmg-UUjOpb6SIFJWYyyc/s1600/AgCat_prototypeN10291.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="231" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhDs4lygDI_jHw35RCwYDgPT6OO6oQupaxpUFgPAKkr6uAJlta2NQ7ZwNQ1Sro9pXDIVhwUabt5a5k3IU3DA7Hq0pfwQ-popwV6W7f3KX9xrxS06dDJ7McueZ_Cmg-UUjOpb6SIFJWYyyc/s320/AgCat_prototypeN10291.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">N10291, the Grumman Ag-Cat prototype<br /><i>(Wikipedia/Rene Francillon Collection)</i></td></tr>
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The first flight took place on 27 May 1957, just seven months after design/fabrication of the prototype, N10291, began! Lippert and Koch requested that all the workers who worked on the project bring their wives to the first flight- as many of them had worked additional hours on top of their existing jobs on the project, they thought that the wives should see "the other woman" in their husbands' lives!</div>
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With a successful first flight that revealed no major issues, the second prototype joined the test program a month later. Grumman himself invited crop duster pilots from around the country to try out the prototypes and every single one was enthusiastic about the aircraft's handing and tight turning capability given that most crop duster pilots that stalled did so during turns to make another pass. The two prototypes were then taken on a nationwide tour by Lippert and Koch with over 150 pilots trying out the aircraft. One of the crop duster pilots that tried out the aircraft, Dick Reade, suggested the name Ag-Cat to the Grumman team as it was in line with Grumman's naming of its fighter aircraft with feline names (<i>Dick Reade's name is below the cockpit of the Ag-Cat on display at the National Air & Space Museum's Udvar-Hazy Center</i>). While on tour in Texas, Joe Lippert began to take flying lessons and on the day he earned his pilot's license, the first thing he did was try out the Ag-Cat- one of those few occasions where an aircraft's designer got to fly their own aircraft- common in the early days, but increasingly rare as aircraft grew in complexity and performance. </div>
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Leroy Grumman had planned on building the Ag-Cat at the Bethpage facility on Long Island in the event that military sales slowed, but this wasn't to be the case and space was lacking for the production of the Ag-Cat. Grumman had the entire production sub-contracted to Schweizer Aircraft in Elmira, New York, who had the production space and the experience in building welded tube aircraft from their long line of gliders. The first production Ag-Cat was delivered in 1959- Schweizer would build 1,730 Ag-Cats from Grumman until 1980. In 1981, Schweizer purchased the design rights outright from Gulfstream (which was the spin off of Grumman's civilian aircraft business) and would build another 617 Ag-Cats until production ended in 1995. Over its production life, more powerful engines and even turbine power was offered which allowed even greater load carrying capability. In 1995, the Ag-Cat Corporation of Missouri purchased the design rights from Schweizer and a further five Ag-Cats were built before they went bankrupt. A large Ag-Cat operator in Arkansas then bought the design, but I haven't been able to determine who currently holds the design rights to one of the most iconic agricultural aircraft. I did come across an online article from 2011 in the Columbus Telegram in Nebraska about an individual named Jared Storm who owned an agricultural flying service and was in negotiations at the time about relaunching Ag-Cat production at David City Municipal Airport in Nebraska (93Y), but haven't found anything further from that news item. If any of my readers has any information, please do add it in the comments section of this article. </div>
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Further reading: </div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2015/12/the-humble-birth-of-grumman-aircraft.html" target="_blank">The Humble Birth of Grumman Aircraft</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2015/11/ce-woolman-and-founding-of-delta-air.html" target="_blank">C.E. Woolman and the Founding of Delta Airlines</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2010/10/birth-of-gulfstream-series-of-aircraft.html" target="_blank">The Birth of the Gulfstream Series of Aircraft</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2010/09/hatching-grumman-goose.html" target="_blank">Hatching the Grumman Goose</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2010/10/aircraft-manufacturer-goes-into-boat.html" target="_blank">An Aircraft Manufacturer Goes Into the Boat Business</a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;"><b>Sources: </b><i>Ironworks: The Story of Grumman and Its Aircraft</i> by Terry Treadwell. Tempus Publishing, 2000, pp 160-164. The Smithsonian National Air & Space Museum's entry on the Ag-Cat (http://airandspace.si.edu/collections/artifact.cfm?object=nasm_A20080395000). </span></div>
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JP Santiagohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02743418658732808826noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3685907526691141099.post-70898351192389555552016-02-27T23:00:00.000-06:002016-02-27T23:00:08.408-06:00Hans von Seeckt and the Doctrinal Foundations of the Luftwaffe, Part One<div style="text-align: justify;">
With the defeat of Germany in the First World War, probably the harshest restrictions by the provisions of the Versailles Treaty dealt with Germany's military aviation, a reflection of the effectiveness of the Imperial German Air Force, the Luftstreitkräfte, during the latter half of the war. Four articles of the Treaty specifically addressed aviation in the postwar Germany. The Allies required the defeated Germans to surrender large quantities of aviation assets, including 17,000 aircraft and engines. Any sort of air force was strictly forbidden and the Germany aviation industry was shut down for a period of six months following the Treaty going into effect. No aircraft, engines or parts could be imported during that six month period and once that period had expired, Germany could only build aircraft that were of limited range, speed and engine power. Finally, the Germans had to surrender control of their airspace with the Allies having free overflight and landing rights throughout Germany. With the German government accepting the Versailles Treaty on 23 June 1919, the demobilization of the Luftstreitkräfte began with the official disbandment taking place on 8 May 1920. Along with effectively stripping Germany of an air force, the Treaty also placed strict limits on the size of the German Army and Navy, with only a lightly armed 100,000 man army with no tanks or heavy artillery and a 15,000 man Navy with obsolete ships and small patrol craft. The Navy was forbidden to have submarines or aircraft. To ensure compliance with the harsh measures of the Treaty, the Inter-Allied Control Commission was established with broad authority to inspect any military or industrial facility on short notice. </div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh-uNbjAldiwkeOswE3DHN6tGYgNA0N0-QIbp0mHlCUZsiCjb0CR_xu9xaB0ulirwkjPBapDoGKquG7TtXWov6mZtkAtvjPrFvKAWa2g1UgJ_48vRa1IwP990eDnphWdx8-hdAoqQBpzFo/s1600/Luft20_vonSeeckt.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh-uNbjAldiwkeOswE3DHN6tGYgNA0N0-QIbp0mHlCUZsiCjb0CR_xu9xaB0ulirwkjPBapDoGKquG7TtXWov6mZtkAtvjPrFvKAWa2g1UgJ_48vRa1IwP990eDnphWdx8-hdAoqQBpzFo/s320/Luft20_vonSeeckt.jpg" width="231" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">General Hans von Seeckt<br />
<i>(Bundesarchiv.de)</i></td></tr>
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Leading this diminished military force was probably one of the most under-rated military theorists of the Twentieth Century, General Hans von Seeckt. Descended from a line of noble Prussian military officers, from an early age von Seeckt had shown promise, vitality and vision and he rapidly moved up the ranks into the German general staff (the leadership of the Imperial German Army). He led German forces in the 1915 Serbian campaign and then led a very innovative mobile campaign in 1916 that pushed Romania out of the war. As chief of staff of the Ottoman field armies in Turkey in 1918, he showed a remarkable grasp of the strategic picture of war as he commanded a coalition of armies of varying strengths and weakness, successfully able to use the diverse forces at his disposal to carry out a war of maneuver against the largely static mass armies of Russia. Unlike many German generals, von Seeckt was highly educated outside of military matters, was fluent in English and French and also knew Latin and Greek. Prior to his service in the First World War, he had traveled extensively in Europe and as far as India. As the commander in chief of the interwar Germany army, the Reichswehr, he was even fond of having breakfast with the publishers and editors of several Berlin newspapers. </div>
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What made Hans von Seeckt unique in comparison to his peers in Britain, France and the United States, was his vision that the next war would be a war of mobility and maneuver with smaller, more highly trained agile forces than with large mass armies. Many military thinkers of the day framed future wars through the lens of their recent First World War experience while von Seeckt felt strongly that the paradigm of war would change with technology, transforming the waging of war. As early as 1919 he was already advocating an all-volunteer military, feeling conscription belonged to a past era of slow, lumbering mass armies on the field. Mass armies were only suitable for defense and von Seeckt saw the only use for conscription for a reserve militia force. As many military theorists in France began to think more defensively (hence the Maginot Line), von Seeckt saw a mobile offense as the key in any future conflict. </div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj8gsRn0dhLOps9mEAE-9Kg5NRqJ4aMDCrSmS_JX1lhLyblU_BsvziEiUOJuOSY6WnE3IEz1YRBPqJn-K-0ev6qqOZitx9q3yKPB96FlTHHi9xnDLqW7wJx-u24gI3pgBE5XKM_Qib0GS4/s1600/Luft20_Wilberg.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj8gsRn0dhLOps9mEAE-9Kg5NRqJ4aMDCrSmS_JX1lhLyblU_BsvziEiUOJuOSY6WnE3IEz1YRBPqJn-K-0ev6qqOZitx9q3yKPB96FlTHHi9xnDLqW7wJx-u24gI3pgBE5XKM_Qib0GS4/s320/Luft20_Wilberg.jpg" width="213" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Captain Helmuth Wilberg<br />
<i>(Bundesarchiv.de)</i></td></tr>
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Core to his ideas of maneuver warfare was the need for a fully independent air force that did more than just support the army- an idea that was pervasive in the United States at the time in particular given the apathy of the Army Air Corps towards long range bombing. As the head of the postwar Reichswehr in 1919, von Seeckt saw to it that what would be come the Luftwaffe got funding priority. As his air advisor, von Seeckt selected Captain Helmuth Wilberg, one of Germany's first aviators who had commanded over 700 aircraft in the field during the First World War. Wilberg was an unusual choice given that he didn't have the Prussian military background most in the Reichswehr expected. His father was an artist and his mother was Jewish- given that anti-Semitism in Germany had roots that went back well before the rise of the Nazi regime, Wilberg's family enjoyed a privileged status as his father had given art lessons to the daughter of the Kaiser. With the patronage of the Kaiser's family, Wilberg entered the military and began a successful career as a military officer. He even did a two year stint as the military tutor to some of the Kaiser's family members before joining the German general staff. In 1910, Wilberg became the 26th licensed pilot in Germany and became an ardent supporter of aviation development in prewar Germany. During the First World War, Wilberg gained renown as a unit commander for his analytical leadership style. </div>
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With von Seeckt as the head of the Reichswehr (the term was used interchangeably for both the entire inter-war Germany military and for the Germany army of the time), he made Wilberg the senior officer in charge of all air matters- while Germany was forbidden by treaty to have an air force, in effect, Wilberg was the head of what would become the Luftwaffe. With Wilberg in charge of aviation, von Seeckt reorganized the German military with a particular emphasis on aviation. Since the Germany military was restricted in size, this gave von Seeckt a chance to pick the best and brightest of the war veterans who wished to continue serving in the military. The two men set about creating the plans for a future German air force that operated on von Seeckt's ideas on the employment of air power. </div>
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General von Seeckt saw a fully independent air force as an offensive weapon in its own right- it's first task was air superiority- to control the air allowed for unhindered movement of his mobile army forces. Once control of the air was secured, then the air force would move in concert with mobile land forces to disrupt the enemy's ability to mobilize and supply its own forces. His own words still resonate in air power doctrines to this day: </div>
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<i>"The war will begin with a simultaneous attack of the air fleets- the weapon which is the most prepared and fastest means of attacking the enemy. Their enemy is, however, not the major cities or industrial power, but the enemy air force. Only after its suppression can the offensive arm be directed against other targets."</i></blockquote>
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This contrasts strongly with the strategic bombing doctrines of the same period that were being espoused with growing enthusiasm in Great Britain and the United States. Doctrinal theory that would later influence Allied strategic bombing plans in the Second World War saw the enemy's center of power as the cities and their industries whereas while von Seeckt did see that morale could be affected by attacking the enemy's cities, he saw the primary target of his air force the enemy's military, its air force in particular. Though he never ruled out bombing of enemy cities, he certainly foresaw that any future adversary would target German cities and he vigorously pushed the German government to establish a national system of civil defense. </div>
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<i>"Through aerial attack, one has the possibility of striking the centers of resistance of the enemy state Not a new target, but one more easily reached by air, are the key elements of military strength, whose disruption degrades the land army's powers of endurance. The only difference is that, when before the decision was sought on land and sea, now it is also sought in the air."</i></blockquote>
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Within the newly formed Reichswehr, what was once the general staff (headquarters command) became the "Truppenamt" or "Troops Office", with von Seeckt as the chief of the Truppenamt. There were four sections in the Truppenamt- T-1 (Operations and Planning), T-2 (Army Organization), T-3 (Intelligence), and T-4 (Training). Only sixty officers were selected for the Truppenamt, giving an indication to the draconian restrictions on the Reichswehr. Acting as adjutants to the Truppenamt were what were called Inspectorates which were specialized staffs that established doctrine, training, and requirements for specific army units. These branch inspectorates focused on things like artillery, infantry, communications, medical corps, and so on. In addition, there was a mixed military and civilian staff group called the Waffenamt or Weapons Office. It was the Waffenamt's responsibility to develop, procure, and test weapons for the military. Many other military organizations in other nations had similar groups, but only in Germany were these functions centralized under one command- that of Hans von Seeckt. </div>
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There was a fifth Truppenamt section that was in many ways the most important and it was designated TA(L). This was the air staff office with Helmuth Wilberg in charge. Wilbert made sure there were aviators in every section of the Truppenamt- of the sixty officers that made up the Truppenamt in 1920, six of them were aviators. Of the sixty officers assigned to the Waffenamt, six there as well were aviators. An even larger number former military aviators were employed as civilian staff to the different groups, insuring there was sufficient "air mindedness" in literally every corner of the Reichswehr. To foster an "air mindedness" throughout the rest of Germany within the restrictions of the Versailles Treaty, von Seeckt encouraged the sport of gliding throughout the Germany with the establishment of glider clubs which created a pool of potential pilots for the future Luftwaffe. Glider competitions were hosted by von Seeckt himself would award prizes for proficiency and skill in the air. </div>
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Institutionalizing such "air mindedness" in the German military was unprecedented when compared with the military leadership structures of other nations. But simply having aviators on staff everywhere isn't enough. In the upcoming second part of this article, I'll talk more about what all those aviation staffers did in a systematic way that established the doctrinal foundations of the Second World War Luftwaffe that made it such an effective weapon in the first several years of the war. Stay tuned!</div>
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Further reading: </div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2016/02/the-flanders-air-campaign-of-1917-first.html" target="_blank">The Flanders Air Campaign of 1917: The First Modern Air War</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2015/06/a-watershed-moment-in-close-air-support.html" target="_blank">A Watershed Moment in Close Air Support: the 1927 Battle of Ocotal</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2015/10/general-giulio-douhet-first-air-power.html" target="_blank">General Giulio Douhet, the First Air Power Visionary</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2015/01/major-general-keith-b-mccutcheon-father.html" target="_blank">Major General Keith B. McCutcheon: Father of Modern Close Air Support</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2015/06/captain-joseph-m-reeves-leading-carrier.html" target="_blank">Captain Joseph M. Reeves: Leading Carrier Aviation from Experiment to Fighting Force</a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;"><b>Source: </b><i>The Luftwaffe: Creating the Operational Air War, 1918-1940 </i>by James S. Corum. University of Kansas Press, 1997, pp 49-59.</span>JP Santiagohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02743418658732808826noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3685907526691141099.post-6292501385286355682016-02-22T23:00:00.001-06:002016-02-23T20:52:09.490-06:00Operation Moked: The Premiere of the Anti-Runway Bomb<div style="text-align: justify;">
In the run up to the 1967 Six-Day War in the Middle East, the Israeli Air Force was significantly outnumbered by the Arab air forces of Egypt, Syria, and Jordan and Iraq as well. Egypt's air force alone had 50 percent more comparable combat aircraft than the Israelis. As early as 1953 it was clear that neutralization of the Arab air bases would be vital in any future conflict. By 1960 operational planning centered around executing a simultaneous strike on all the Arab bases in range of Israel. The operations branch commander of the IAF, Rafi Har-Lev, and the top navigator in the air force, Rafi Sivron, began work on Operation Moked- the simultaneous neutralization of the Arab air bases.</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The MATRA BLU-107 Durandal on a USAF F-111<br />
<i>(Wikipedia)</i></td></tr>
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The basis of the planning was intelligence- not only were the dispositions and activity cycles of the Arab squadrons determined, but they also were able to secure information on the runway thickness and design of the bases. Planning began in earnest in 1963 and was continually updated by the flow on intelligence from reconnaissance and human sources.</div>
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Since trapping the Arab combat aircraft on the ground was key, the Israelis and the French (before their abrupt change in foreign policy under Charles De Gaulle shifted away from Israel in 1967 after the Six-Day War) co-developed a new type of bomb specifically designed for destroying runways. After its release, a first rocket acted as a braking rocket to slow the munition to get it to the optimum penetration angle. A second rocket then fired that drove the bomb through the runway and within six seconds the explosives detonated, creating a larger crater than would have been possible with a conventional bomb. Israeli Military Industries (IMI or "Taas", it's Hebrew name) was the lead contractor for the new weapon.</div>
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Aircraft carrying the new bombs would target eighteen air bases in Egypt, six bases in Syria, and two bases in Jordan. Once the runways were knocked out, the rest of the strike force could pick off the grounded Arab aircraft with guns and rockets. On 5 June 1967 at 0700 hours, the command went out from the IDF headquarters in Tel Aviv "Execute Moked". One-hundred sixty aircraft took off in the first wave. Jordanian radar detected the strike force but assumed that they were US Navy aircraft of the Sixth Fleet which were known to be in the region. At 0745 hours, Egyptian fighter aircraft were finishing up landing after their dawn patrols of the airspace adjoining Israel. Maintenance crews and pilots were in the process of heading to breakfast before the next patrol cycle began and that was when the Israelis struck. As each aircraft delivered the new runway bombs, they swung around and commenced strafing runs against the flight lines of trapped aircraft. While ten percent of the strike force was lost, within six hours the air forces of Egypt, Syria, and Jordan were neutralized. As Mordechai Hod, the commander of the Israeli Air Force said before the attacks "A jet aircraft is the deadliest weapon in existence- in the sky. On the ground, it is useless."</div>
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Operation Moked was a hugely successful gamble. The Israelis committed nearly all of its aircraft to the strikes, leaving only 12 fighters to protect Tel Aviv, something that the IDF commanders didn't fully reveal to the Israeli government.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjfHha54VTCnzs_1kzOylpP3p24Xiy83yuNe8nBxoCtVGsDg3pGlnksFiNwNLTQRO9v0wg-GWKcziEjX04A4FlrtC4hlcwtKgfzp97JCN0WdN38rdPvL3UQuLNcnOFkUYvOu9qtSIBNdMw/s1600/Durandal_Mirage.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="189" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjfHha54VTCnzs_1kzOylpP3p24Xiy83yuNe8nBxoCtVGsDg3pGlnksFiNwNLTQRO9v0wg-GWKcziEjX04A4FlrtC4hlcwtKgfzp97JCN0WdN38rdPvL3UQuLNcnOFkUYvOu9qtSIBNdMw/s320/Durandal_Mirage.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Durandal test round dropped by a Mirage III<br />
<i>(Sistemsadearmas.br)</i></td></tr>
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The runway cratering bomb was further developed starting in 1971 by the French weapons firm MATRA as the Durandal, named for a mythical French sword. The Durandal differed from the 1967 anti-runway munition in that after release, a braking parachute was used to stabilize the bomb instead of a braking rocket. There is a oft-repeated misconception that Durandal was used in Operation Moked, but that would have been nearly ten years before Durandal was available. Rather, the 1967 weapon was a distinct program that led to the current Durandal weapon. The Durandal was put into production for the French in 1977 and in 1982, it was evaluated by the United States Air Force for use by the General Dynamics F-111. It would subsequently be cleared as well for the McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle and received the designation BLU-107 and was used to great effect during Operation Desert Storm. The Durandal was designed for a shelf life of 11 years and if was carried on three sorties and not used, it was withdrawn from use. As such, the BLU-107 Durandal is no longer in use by the USAF.<br />
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Further reading:<br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2015/09/operation-drugstore-1982-air-battles.html" target="_blank">Operation Drugstore: The 1982 Air Battles Over the Bekaa Valley</a><br />
<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2010/11/foxbats-over-sinai.html" target="_blank">Foxbats Over the Sinai</a><br />
<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2010/06/for-better-part-of-1950s-and-1960s.html" target="_blank">Selling the Skyhawk to Israel and a Watershed Change in American Foreign Policy</a><br />
<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2015/05/birth-of-lion-development-of-iai-kfir.html" target="_blank">Birth of the Lion: The Development of the IAI Kfir</a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">Source:</span> <span style="font-style: italic;">Air Combat Reader: Historic Feats and Aviation Legends</span>, edited by Walter Boyne and Philip Handleman. Brassey's, 1999, p235-245. </span>JP Santiagohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02743418658732808826noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3685907526691141099.post-71191518745731361222016-02-17T23:00:00.001-06:002016-02-23T20:45:25.518-06:00Extreme Punchout: The Ejection Seat of the X-15<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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The hypersonic speed and extreme altitude performance of the North American X-15 demanded one of the most complex ejection seats ever put into service. Earlier NASA research rocket aircraft like the Douglas D-558-2 Skyrocket and the Bell X-2 featured ejectable nose sections that the pilot would then bail out of conventionally once it had separated from the aircraft and stabilized. However, the weight and volume restrictions on the X-15 made such a system impractical and North American in conjunction with engineer/test pilot A. Scott Crossfield, North American Aviation designer Jerry Madden and the David Clark Co. (who had long made pressure suits for the military and NASA) designed an integrated system that combined the pressure suit design along with an advanced ejection seat.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjLsyyV0tWcOIYDORvaBUjPwYvhYbIQSYvyLIxSc2aBV0LjnjpH5F9nB1KD3qmbylfDo7_1C174uTN2zg5pXx_BxLhZ1OJ3HDjlaJtn6ZO_eg7fPbmzvpiCknSnJIvf2XN0H32GPnNy6Gk/s1600/X-15A-2_cockpit_USAF.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="211" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjLsyyV0tWcOIYDORvaBUjPwYvhYbIQSYvyLIxSc2aBV0LjnjpH5F9nB1KD3qmbylfDo7_1C174uTN2zg5pXx_BxLhZ1OJ3HDjlaJtn6ZO_eg7fPbmzvpiCknSnJIvf2XN0H32GPnNy6Gk/s320/X-15A-2_cockpit_USAF.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The X-15 ejection seat in the aircraft<br />
<i>(USAF Museum)</i></td></tr>
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David Clark's MC-2 pressure suit was the key to making an open-faced ejection at high Mach and high altitudes possible. It not only protected the pilot from the extreme windblast of hitting the airstream at Mach 3+, it also functioned as a pressure suit to protect the X-15 pilot at altitudes in excess of 250,000 feet. Despite the advanced nature of the pressure suit, it was understood that kinetic heating during a high-Mach ejection would probably result in mild burns to the head, knees, and toes which in effect projected into the airstream. <br />
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Because the rocket motor of the X-15 ejection seat had to be powerful to propel the pilot clear of the X-15's hypersonic shockwave, a novel means was used to transfer loads from the pilot's rear end to the seat pan. Each X-15 program pilot sat on a weather balloon filled with plastic beads and wiggled into it like a bean bag. A vacuum was applied which held the shape of the balloon. Once the pilot stood up, plaster of Paris was poured into the depression, creating an exact copy of the pilot's rear end. A block of Balsa wood was then carved to precisely fit the mould and this became the seat cushion of the X-15's ejection seat- not only was it custom fit which allowed the optimum transfer of shock loads from the pilot's body to the seat pan, it also made for a very comfortable seat!<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj_a2-tj_BrOzce_lMlCpPdmeANgU5VToMoCg9WbaX0dC0EtUe_3pW_QnPA7AV9icg3SY91fatAKzk4gJNywv17yoJJd4xH0fRsoZIE0ggmWY1es9-ohWX81s9WiiE07_zXcNjWq2FlYQc/s1600/x15_MC2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj_a2-tj_BrOzce_lMlCpPdmeANgU5VToMoCg9WbaX0dC0EtUe_3pW_QnPA7AV9icg3SY91fatAKzk4gJNywv17yoJJd4xH0fRsoZIE0ggmWY1es9-ohWX81s9WiiE07_zXcNjWq2FlYQc/s320/x15_MC2.jpg" width="311" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Scott Crossfield in the MC-2 pressure suit<br />
<i>(NASA/Dryden Flight Research Center)</i></td></tr>
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To prevent the flailing of the arms and legs during a high-Mach ejection, special articulated restraints would protect the pilot's legs and feet (also acting as a windblast deflector to minimize heat burns on the feet) as well as to the arms and hands. The articulated arms deployed gauntlets to protect the pilot's hands from aerodynamic heating as well.<br />
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Once the articulated arms deployed into place, the emergency oxygen supply took over pressurization of the suit and a heating unit activated to keep the pilot's helmet visor clear of ice. Once the canopy was blown off and the seat traveled up the rails, special wings on the sides of the seat deployed to stabilize the seat in the high-Mach airstream. In a conventional ejection seat, a drogue chute would be deployed to slow the seat down but at the X-15's speeds, such a chute would have melted instantly, so the X-15's seat deployed a pair of telescopic booms that projected aft and outward from the bottom of the seat to provide aerodynamic braking and helped the wings stabilize the seat.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglWWwBC0yrc_8znx90oKQL3otpl88o1zWdkrwPrOdPkfbvQfbZV_dnzaBn7V63w0WTBJ0kq8K6vNgHIGL4SL_CI7eLDvBbio8MTowuFBAbTcFL4s5FK9-7iK46hzNwM5E1pMnW0stVdUI/s1600/X15_seattest.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="257" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglWWwBC0yrc_8znx90oKQL3otpl88o1zWdkrwPrOdPkfbvQfbZV_dnzaBn7V63w0WTBJ0kq8K6vNgHIGL4SL_CI7eLDvBbio8MTowuFBAbTcFL4s5FK9-7iK46hzNwM5E1pMnW0stVdUI/s320/X15_seattest.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Rocket sled test of the X-15 seat- note the deployed booms<br />
<i>(Boeing)</i></td></tr>
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If ejection took place over 15,000 feet, a built-in barostat kept the pilot attached to the seat which allowed use of the seat's emergency oxygen supply. Once 15,000 feet was reached, the seat automatically released the pilot and activated his parachute. If ejection took place below 15,000 feet, a three second timer allowed the wings and drogue booms to deploy and stabilized the seat before separating from the pilot.<br />
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One little-known fact was that the X-15 cockpit was pressurized with nitrogen instead of oxygen as was used in the Mercury and Gemini spacecraft. The pilot breathed oxygen from the his suit which was only pressurized upon ejection. This meant the cockpit was fireproof, something that NASA tragically learned with the launch pad fire on Apollo 1.<br />
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The X-15s set an absolute speed record of Mach 6.7 and an absolute altitude record of 354,000 feet which qualified several of its program pilots for astronaut wings. Fortunately the ejection system was never needed and the one fatality, Michael Adams, occurred when his X-15 lost control and broke up on re-entry into the thicker levels of the atmosphere and the X-15's complex ejection system might not have saved him.</div>
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Interestingly, the David Clark MC-2 pressure suit served as the basis for the space suits for the Mercury and Gemini programs. The aluminized fabric exterior of the MC-2 suit carried over to the space programs and heavily influenced Hollywood cinematic depictions of space suits well into the 1970s. <br />
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<i>Related reading: </i><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2010/07/in-1960s-as-preliminary-design-work.html" target="_blank">Lockheed's Contribution to the Space Shuttle Program</a><br />
<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2011/01/747-shuttle-carrier-aircraft-sca.html" target="_blank">The Boeing 747 SCA Shuttle Carrier Aircraft</a><br />
<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2011/01/flight-testing-on-cheap-ground-breaking.html" target="_blank">Flight Testing on the Cheap: The Groundbreaking M2F1 Lifting Body</a><br />
<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2015/01/how-shuttle-orbiter-lost-its-jet-engines.html" target="_blank">How the Shuttle Orbiter Lost Its Jet Engines</a><br />
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;"><b>Source:</b> <i>Eject!: The Complete History of U.S. Aircraft Escape Systems</i> by Jim Tuttle. MBI Publishing, 2002, p136-143. </span></div>
JP Santiagohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02743418658732808826noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3685907526691141099.post-14272501512020309512016-02-12T23:00:00.000-06:002016-02-23T20:44:21.019-06:00The Flanders Air Campaign of 1917: The First Modern Air War<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgpVWMKC_BVWcfHyUa_eW8DJUHTtNSfL866tvkuEx-y6VFq_LVKRccmFIJbJiubVG2H4RZ2v6ChgV5Iwe2x6ajRE3UU2fZ7TPiCxLWxGEPdm-qqm5YhHaoKepwp9z8AtoADo3Xe9fg70fI/s1600/Flanders_trenches.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="217" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgpVWMKC_BVWcfHyUa_eW8DJUHTtNSfL866tvkuEx-y6VFq_LVKRccmFIJbJiubVG2H4RZ2v6ChgV5Iwe2x6ajRE3UU2fZ7TPiCxLWxGEPdm-qqm5YhHaoKepwp9z8AtoADo3Xe9fg70fI/s320/Flanders_trenches.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">In 1917, the first modern air war took shape over the trenches of Flanders</span><br />
<i><span style="font-size: xx-small;">(ww1battlefields.co.uk)</span></i></td></tr>
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In the First World War, The Deutsche Luftstreitkräfte proved itself to be a very able air arm over the Western Front despite often being numerically outnumbered by the British and French air arms. Initially part of the Imperial German Army, as the war progressed, the air arm became more and more autonomous, operating for all practical purposes as an independent branch of the German military after the 1916 re-organization of units that led to the formation of the Luftstreitkräfte. While the original intent of the Prussian general staff as well as the rest of the army supported a fully independent air arm, opposition from the Imperial German Navy left the Luftstreitkräfte just short of full independence from the army. Like most inter-service rivalries through military history, the Navy feared less of a voice in military affairs with an independent air arm. In fact, the Imperial Germany Navy refused to give up its air arm to the Luftstreitkräfte. Nonetheless, despite Navy obstacles, the Luftstreitkräfte developed quickly after 1916 with its own centralized control which laid down the infrastructure of what some historians consider the first modern air force- its own commander-in-chief and headquarters staff, staff sections in charge of a range of aviation tasks ranging from logistics, production, training, staffing, doctrine, communications, airfields and even medical units. While the commanders of the Luftstreitkräfte were subordinate to the Imperial German Army, experience had shown that the aviators were most effective when left to their own initiatives. Compared to the Allies, the Luftstreitkräfte general staff were very capable, willing to take advantage of technology, and most importantly, flexible and responsive to the imperatives of the war on the Western Front. The general staff routinely requested and evaluated reports from squadron commanders (a squadron was a <i>Jagdstaffel</i>, or <i>Jasta</i>, for short) who had shown themselves to be particularly successful leaders in battle. Manfred von Richthofen, the legendary "Red Baron", in particular as a commander in the field was a valued source of input for the Luftstreitkräfte general staff. The introduction of one of the best fighter aircraft of the First World War, the Fokker D-7, was attributed to Richthofen's advice to the general staff. </div>
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The pilots of the Luftstreitkräfte were also much more highly trained than their Allied counterparts. In 1916, the year of the formation of the Luftstreitkräfte, a German pilot before flying their first combat mission had to demonstrate proficiency in short and long range navigation, night flying, as well as day and night landings. By the time a German pilot earned his wings, he had flown about 75-80 flight hours. Before getting posted to an operational squadron, pilots then had to go through a special training course that lasted a month in German-occupied France near Valenciennes. Intensive flying took place under the auspices of returning combat veterans. By contrast, the pilots of the British Royal Flying Corps, flew their first combat mission with less than twenty hours of training, surprisingly little of it solo! In the air battles of the spring of 1917, three RFC pilots would be lost for every Luftstreitkräfte lost. </div>
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In May 1917, the British Army began its Flanders offensive, breaking out of its large salient at the Belgian town of Ypres. In the next six months would come some of the bloodiest fighting on the Western Front, but more importantly, the air war above the fields of the Flanders region had all the hallmarks of what would be considered a modern air war- the Germans had an integrated air defense system on their side of the lines, both British and German units carried out interdiction attacks on the each other's rear areas to disrupt supply lines, fighter sweeps were conducted to gain air superiority and attacks were made on opposing airfields to degrade the effectiveness of air support. In addition, close air support was used in a more organized fashion compared to the first half of the First World War. The Luftstreitkräfte in particular, led the way in 1917 with a number of doctrinal innovations in air warfare that even to this day are standard in many air forces. </div>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgnsZ4Ln_LIyoK7DT6qFvwAgSICaevQbSOkPIBf2jRwYObaU3ofYkkVh_bMz4t0D7EzRtTrtdJa066Mopa7tw4eNZNjezGwQ_HJ3uNpSRuZRXgIa0WcZGLWIhL9Lrr-qNeaeO3llGtWORs/s1600/Flanders_Manfred_von_Richthofen.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgnsZ4Ln_LIyoK7DT6qFvwAgSICaevQbSOkPIBf2jRwYObaU3ofYkkVh_bMz4t0D7EzRtTrtdJa066Mopa7tw4eNZNjezGwQ_HJ3uNpSRuZRXgIa0WcZGLWIhL9Lrr-qNeaeO3llGtWORs/s320/Flanders_Manfred_von_Richthofen.jpg" width="224" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Manfred von Richtofen, head of JG 1<br /><i>(Wikipedia)</i></span></td></tr>
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Despite massive reinforcement of the Flanders sector by the Luftstreitkräfte, the German pilots remained outnumbered with approximately 600 combat aircraft in the area compared to 850 Allied combat aircraft. Just in fighter aircraft, the Germans were similarly outnumbered with 200 fighter aircraft compared to 350 Allied fighter aircraft. While the superior training of the German pilots offset the numerical advantage of the Allied forces, the Luftstreitkräfte established the first fighter wing, or Jagdgeschwader (JG) to concentrate their forces in very focused attacks. JG 1 was established in June 1917 with four squadrons, or <i>Jastas</i>- <i>Jastas</i> 4, 6, 10, 11 formed the world's first fighter wing with Manfred von Richthofen as the commander. Each <i>Jasta </i>had twelve or more aircraft and approximately fifteen pilots, giving JG 1 fifty aircraft. The entire wing functioned as an operational unit and this allowed the Luftstreitkräfte to concentrate its aircraft on specific objectives, easily overwhelming Allied aircraft they encountered. This assured the Germans local air superiority over the battlefield as needed. For example, JG 1 might clear an area out of any reconnaissance aircraft to allow the German army to move unseen to Allied eyes. To improve air combat recognition, Richthofen had the Fokker triplanes of his fighter wing painted in bright colors, giving rise to JG 1's nickname, "The Flying Circus". Prior to 1917, the most aircraft that would participate in a given mission from either combatant side were ten or less.</div>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhFaO3LQf-HyybP-RH9j3UVWlFFWQIsZkPM519qGiQNCXSA5i_8mmRPudj4ekh-WoTk0ppWWZ2OKommkf1R7UeiFJuDYCoX4f4Wdym6yttCF73UeYWb-2tWCJfpwBqXhyphenhyphenwAJfp80cSkGf4/s1600/Flanders_FlyingCircus.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="146" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhFaO3LQf-HyybP-RH9j3UVWlFFWQIsZkPM519qGiQNCXSA5i_8mmRPudj4ekh-WoTk0ppWWZ2OKommkf1R7UeiFJuDYCoX4f4Wdym6yttCF73UeYWb-2tWCJfpwBqXhyphenhyphenwAJfp80cSkGf4/s320/Flanders_FlyingCircus.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">The Flying Circus in action<br /><i>(Antonio Karidis/ArtStation.com)</i></span></td></tr>
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Fighter aircraft weren't the only ones to practice the massing of forces on specific objectives. Two seat observation aircraft were used as close air support and interdiction aircraft, the squadronsIt being organized into temporary two and three squadron <i>Jagdgruppen</i> as needed. While a Jagdgeschwader was a permanent unit, <i>Jagdgruppen</i> were temporary and based on a specific tactical objective. Though close air support had been performed by both sides prior to the Flanders campaign in 1917, it would be the Luftstreitkräfte would use close air support for the first time in concentrated mass attacks. <i>Jagdgruppen</i> were assigned to the operational control of an infantry division and would focus on targets in support of the division's objectives. The British approach was haphazard to say the least. While the attack aircraft of the <i>Jagdgruppen</i> were modified with armor plating and employed in organized tactical formations, the Royal Flying Corps sent unmodified single seat fighters and two-seaters singly and in small groups in search of target of opportunity. Like the British fighter pilots, there was no organized training system in place for ground attack pilots. Like the German fighter pilots who had their own tactical school before getting posted to an operational unit, so did the ground attack pilots. The Luftstreitkräfte trained its ground attack pilots with drills on simulated ground targets to hone their skills before being released for assignment on the front. The Germans felt that nuisance raids on targets of opportunity was a waste of resources and would often commit an entire <i>Jagdgruppen</i> in support of a counterattack or to break an enemy advance. Many British battalions were lost after getting pinned down by <i>Jagdgruppen</i> during a German infantry advance. </div>
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To further degrade the effectiveness of the superior numbers of Allied aircraft, the Luftstreitkräfte also carried out highly organized day and night attacks on Allied airfields and aviation supply depots. Night time attacks used parachute flares to illuminate the target area. The Germans also conducted a comprehensive interdiction campaign against the supply lines of the British and French armies. British air assets began to get better organized by the summer of 1917 and conducted a reasonably effective campaign against German rail yards while the Luftstreitkräfte hit not just French rail yards but also the ports of Calais and Dunkirk where the majority of supplies for the British Expeditionary Force arrived from England. While neither side was fully able to cut each other's supply lines, it did serve to divert resources from the battles on the front line. Just as the fighters were organized into fighter wings or J<i>agdgeschwader,</i> the bomber aircraft of the Luftstreitkräfte were organized into <i>Kampfgeschwader </i>(KG) or bomber wings. This is a recurring theme in the Luftstreitkräfte during the air battles of 1917- concentrate limited forces into larger units and conducted massed attacks against very specific targets, overwhelming the enemy, whether it was fighters, ground attack aircraft, or bombers. </div>
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Another advance of the Luftstreitkräfte in 1917 not used by any other air arm extensively was the use of airborne radio. Use of radio was near non-existent by the Royal Flying Corps or any other Allied air arm at this time. It was most valuable in the hands of two seat observation aircraft performing the role of artillery spotting. A special system using Morse code was developed that allowed observers to radio two and three letter messages quickly to artillery units to assist them in adjusting their fire. Other codes allowed observation aircraft to identify new targets for the artillery units to hit. Some ground attack units also carried airborne radios as well which allowed them to radio strike assessments to commanders as well as receive changes in orders and tasking while enroute. </div>
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Much of why the Luftstreitkräfte had to be so effective in the spring and summer of 1917 was to offset its numerical disadvantage, but there was a broader goal as well of trying to use all that air power had to offer to knock the British out of the war. Many in the German high command saw the the eventual entry of the United States in the First World War and, much like the Second World War, the Germans had no way of matching the American's prodigious production capacity. It was a strategic imperative of the Germany to conclude the war on its own terms before the Americans got involved. </div>
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The German strategic bombing campaign as well as the 1918 air battles will be the subject of future articles here at <i>Tails Through Time</i>, so stay tuned! </div>
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<i>Related reading: </i></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2015/09/the-aircraft-operated-from-submarines.html" target="_blank">The Aircraft Operated from Submarines in World War I</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2015/06/a-watershed-moment-in-close-air-support.html" target="_blank">A Watershed Moment in Close Air Support: The 1927 Battle of Octal</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2010/02/captain-murray-f.html" target="_blank">The First Torpedo Bomber: The Shorts 184 of the First World War</a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;"><b>Source: </b><i>The Luftwaffe: Creating the Operational Air War, 1918-1940 </i>by James S. Corum. University of Kansas Press, 1997, pp 29-34.</span></div>
JP Santiagohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02743418658732808826noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3685907526691141099.post-67681354679928555502016-02-07T23:00:00.001-06:002016-02-23T20:46:23.837-06:00The End of the Line for Curtiss Aircraft<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhsDoiuxUK_ezyztuYih0nCLZKxk_MRNsyrMNIUtX8AoxDJz_TprgWEA0HbPNegHW60YNjgYsCwCtgxHSWAP4j1BMk5qI4gNYTgdMfavK4UcknDtiHpqNXytZWXpr_3ixWUa7wa1NWzxto/s1600/xf871.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: justify;"><img border="0" height="129" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhsDoiuxUK_ezyztuYih0nCLZKxk_MRNsyrMNIUtX8AoxDJz_TprgWEA0HbPNegHW60YNjgYsCwCtgxHSWAP4j1BMk5qI4gNYTgdMfavK4UcknDtiHpqNXytZWXpr_3ixWUa7wa1NWzxto/s320/xf871.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">XP-87 Blackhawk prototype<br />
<i>(USAF Museum)</i></td></tr>
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In the summer of 1945 the US Army Air Force was in the process of outlining its combat aircraft needs in the post-war world. For fighter aircraft, there were three classes of aircraft that the USAAF wanted- an all-weather offensive fighter, a point-defense interceptor, and a long-range penetration fighter. It was expected that because of the state of the technology of the day that the all-weather offensive fighter would be the biggest of the three. On 28 August 1945 the USAAF issued its RfP (Request for Proposals) for the all-weather offensive fighter- a speed of 525 mph at 35,000 feet, 12 minutes to reach 35,000 feet and a 600-mile combat radius. It was thought at the time that piston engines would be necessary, but a refinement of the USAAF requirements a few months later laid out the service's desire for an aircraft that could seek out and destroy both enemy aircraft and ground targets in all weather conditions, day or night. Bell, Consolidated (Convair), Curtiss, Douglas, Goodyear, and Northrop submitted entries; Bell, Convair, and Goodyear were eliminated quickly due to performance deficiencies. Curtiss submitted a large four jet design based on the XA-43 attack jet design they had been working on for a different ground attack specification. Douglas submitted a land-based version of their F3D Skyknight, and Northrop submitted three designs- a refined version of the P-61 Black Widow, one based on the XP-79 flying wing fighter, and an all-new twinjet design. </div>
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The political winds of change meant that the USAAF favored Curtiss heavily for the reasons that the previously dominant aircraft manufacturer had no contracts to sustain it in the postwar period and no civilian designs readily available for the growing passenger market. What was left of the funding for the XA-43 project was used to contract with Curtiss for prototypes of their design to be designated the XP-87. But the USAAF was sufficiently interested in Northrop's all-new twinjet design to contract for prototypes of that design as well to be designated XP-89. The USAAF also contracted with Martin Aircraft for a nose mounted turret that would allow the cannons to be swiveled to off-center targets that was to be fitted to both the XP-87 and XP-89. </div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjk1-UPo0w2SDRpgDBCRP2tVpwqFUYIs4AhuebNqceQJRveelhsVgNFQ0-TSqyYzSAjojg95Egd-yPtcczhWWF4iyb7CHXqfGqU1fW-iHNf2X9VjNlUOoMjutTFPUM-4ba_Nmokjs-2NtE/s1600/xa43-c.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="248" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjk1-UPo0w2SDRpgDBCRP2tVpwqFUYIs4AhuebNqceQJRveelhsVgNFQ0-TSqyYzSAjojg95Egd-yPtcczhWWF4iyb7CHXqfGqU1fW-iHNf2X9VjNlUOoMjutTFPUM-4ba_Nmokjs-2NtE/s320/xa43-c.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The XA-43. Note the differences from the XP-87 design.<br />
<i>(<a href="http://up-ship.com/blog/?p=1632" target="_blank">The Unwanted Blog at up-ship.com</a>)</i></td></tr>
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The designation XA-43 is often and mistakenly used interchangeably with the XP-87 designation- they were in fact two different aircraft that only resembled each other in basic layout. The XA-43 had a tandem cockpit, oval cross-section nacelles that were mounted inline with the wing, and was 65% larger than the XP-87 which had a side-by-side cockpit, rectangular nacelles under the wing. The XA-43's horizontal tail was low set and the design also featured a tail gun. The fact that the first XP-87 prototype was contracted with XA-43 funding led to the confusion that still is seen to this day. The XA-43 was ordered in November 1944 for a jet-powered ground attack bomber but it soon outgrew its proposed powerplants. By the time of the all-weather fighter RfP, the USAAF had lost interest in the XA-43 and allowed Curtiss to redirect its XA-43 efforts to the XP-87. But since policy of the time dictated two prototype aircraft in case of the loss of one, the original XA-43 contract was amended to allow for the construction of a second XP-87 prototype. In August 1946 Curtiss requested to name the XP-87 the Bat, but as there was already a US Navy glide bomb called the Bat, the request was turned down and a month later the XP-87 was given the name Blackhawk. </div>
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By 1947 a review was underway to determine which of the fighters under development at the time might be suitable as a tactical reconnaissance aircraft- due to the size and carrying capacity of the XP-87, it was decided that it would also be developed into a reconnaissance version designated the RP-87. In order to not slow down the development, Curtiss was to complete both prototypes as all-weather fighters and then convert the second aircraft into the reconnaissance configuration at the completion of the prototype flight tests. In June 1947 Curtiss raised concerns with the USAAF on the power output of using four Westinghouse J34 engines in the paired nacelles and suggested changing to the Allison J33 as a single J33 engine had the power of two J34s not to mention the simplification of maintenance having only two engines instead of four. The change was approved for the production model but the prototypes would be completed with the four J34 engines. </div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjF5v-tGUdR2acbowV6qRxno6M5EwaEkr57ML_eSoZ79hAACDHXBH30lOz-yI9X7XSUXEGasAdr-lXpAGTwYa-k34kG6Cbfi9ribTcRpXnfixrtWZ7cPrwVcDGh2VdVXiZe6i-pfKOW65Q/s1600/xf872.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="213" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjF5v-tGUdR2acbowV6qRxno6M5EwaEkr57ML_eSoZ79hAACDHXBH30lOz-yI9X7XSUXEGasAdr-lXpAGTwYa-k34kG6Cbfi9ribTcRpXnfixrtWZ7cPrwVcDGh2VdVXiZe6i-pfKOW65Q/s320/xf872.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Only the XP-87 prototypes were to have four paired engines<br />
<i>(USAF Museum)</i></td></tr>
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The first prototype was built at Curtiss' production facility in Columbus, Ohio, that once housed wartime production of the SB2C Helldiver. Taxi testing and ground tests took place at Columbus, but the USAAF wanted all flight testing to occur at Muroc AAF (later renamed Edwards AFB) in California. The first XP-87 was partially disassembled and loaded onto a trailer for transport to California- on going under the first highway overpass near the Columbus plant, the height was misjudged and the vertical fin hit the overpass, resulting in significant damage. With the damaged fin removed, he convoy headed out again and outside of Tulsa, Oklahoma got into an accident that damaged the nacelle for the left two engines. It was felt repairs could be made at Muroc and after month, the convoy reached the base where a new vertical fin and a team of engineers were waiting to repair the prototype. The first flight was finally made on 1 March 1948 on a reasonably uneventful 58-minute maiden flight. The next several flights discovered buffeting in the tail due to it having a lower critical Mach number than the rest of the aircraft. Curtiss proposed a redesigned swept empennage for the production aircraft that was also duly approved by the USAAF. A total of 55 contractor test flights were made with the Blackhawk prototype and the flights confirmed the need to change to the Allison J33 on the production fighter- the Westinghouse J34s were unreliable and needed constant repair and replacement. By the time of the next series of flights with service test pilots, the USAAF was now the US Air Force and the first USAF flights were made on 3 June 1948. A week later the USAF placed a preliminary order for 57 P-87B Blackhawks (J33 engines and swept empennage were features of the production "B" version) and 30 RP-87B photo-recon aircraft. The following day the USAF switched from P-for-pursuit to F-for-fighter, the Blackhawk becoming the XF-87.</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjew2g_Non9EPjmGZxB5nL99v8ObSDsxUbI_Pv1C5QK2KOjfbTz_AOGVRpybtWLQICvx0weQHxUbqRHpOz7GN1-k7BzAl4IXVf3urueSwvRybFWClPh9EsyvEbIIO62SffsfI11o5jOxSk/s1600/xf873.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="208" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjew2g_Non9EPjmGZxB5nL99v8ObSDsxUbI_Pv1C5QK2KOjfbTz_AOGVRpybtWLQICvx0weQHxUbqRHpOz7GN1-k7BzAl4IXVf3urueSwvRybFWClPh9EsyvEbIIO62SffsfI11o5jOxSk/s320/xf873.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The now-designated XF-87 from the rear<br />
<i>(USAF Museum)</i></td></tr>
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After 19 USAF test flights, a recommendation was made to Curtiss for a slightly larger wing to help reduce the stall speed and it was agreed that the second prototype XF-87 under construction would have the larger wing, the J33 engines, the swept empennage and reconnaissance modifications and would be designated XF-87C. In October 1948 the USAF held a fly-off evaluation with the XF-87 Blackhawk prototype, the Northrop XF-89 which got the name Scorpion, and a borrowed Navy F3D Skyknight to represent the Douglas submission as it was felt the Douglas design was close enough to the production Skyknight that it could act as a stand-in. With pilots of the Air Defense Command participating, while the XF-87 Blackhawk and F3D Skyknight had their strong points (side-by-side seating being one of the strongest suits of both designs in the opinion of the ADC pilots), the Northrop XF-89 Scorpion came out overall ahead in the evaluation and it was selected for production as having the best development potential. </div>
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It was a crushing blow for Curtiss-Wright as the XF-87 was its only postwar jet design to take to the air. The Navy had canceled the XF15C mixed-propulsion fighter a few years earlier after only three examples were built. The company, in effect, was betting its future as an aircraft manufacturer on the XF-87 Blackhawk. The first prototype was ferried to Wright-Patterson AFB in Ohio in December 1948 and was eventually scrapped by 1950. The second unfinished prototype was never completed and what was done got parted out for other projects that the company was attempting. With no other designs in advanced development, Curtiss-Wright was forced to shut down its Airplane Division and its assets were sold to North American Aircraft and the Columbus plant would be used for the manufacture of the F-86 Sabre. Curtiss-Wright's propeller division remained active into the 1960s and was responsible for the X-19 radial lift test aircraft. Some feel the X-19 was Curtiss' last aircraft design, but in reality it was the XF-87 Blackhawk that represented the end of the line for Curtiss-Wright Aircraft, a company that just ten years earlier was one of the dominant aircraft manufacturers of the United States. </div>
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Related Reading:<br />
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2011/12/massive-curtiss-xp-71-fighter.html" target="_blank">The Massive Curtiss XP-71 Fighter</a><br />
<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2015/04/the-barrier-patrols-extending-us-radar.html" target="_blank">The Barrier Patrols: Extending the US Radar Net Out to Sea</a><br />
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: xx-small;">Source: </span></b><i><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Experimental & Prototype U.S.Air Force Jet Fighters</span><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/proxy/AVvXsEjhzDN3EiXe4-IkcogyVrCNAEgB6fiiAJimdunkxmdSkWjdxIA-iIqfxT3Mj-8IuOy83YbxdZx2pXxQDFusYnHK8xGQhNRN2nkYZ6iHzvdMwDL7kl91qKPEZ3ful0DPImWdDqAwPsG_uhUTYn1AF0xBGrLjEWkNFM4NOYzL9u-x4PbwRkYO36tytNgPuGUyURRZvL-P4JsVAG9q9MOTys9TFYXh9g=" /></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: xx-small;">by Dennis R. Jenkins and Tony R. Landis. Specialty Press, 2008, p95-101. </span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhePE34YcolAtNLFQLh1MYGHvoWKM9yxLDy_vmM71ZYiHTxdd3i23iiFTvu_fZD-1_aWRdKazsJdG3nuij7Y2Yn6lnNmmPGzKzhEFaCnlpj_X673Vey76rk-yAsHjp3KHuCuukQUHzKZgw/s1600/727s_TWAStar_blog1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhePE34YcolAtNLFQLh1MYGHvoWKM9yxLDy_vmM71ZYiHTxdd3i23iiFTvu_fZD-1_aWRdKazsJdG3nuij7Y2Yn6lnNmmPGzKzhEFaCnlpj_X673Vey76rk-yAsHjp3KHuCuukQUHzKZgw/s400/727s_TWAStar_blog1.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Trans World Airlines' first Boeing 727-100 and 727-200<br />
<i>(The Chicken Works: The Aviation Art of JP Santiago)</i></td></tr>
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TWA launched its first jet services on 25 January 1959 between New York Idlewild-San Francisco with the Boeing 707 in competition with American Airlines' launch of 707 services between New York Idlewild and Los Angeles. Howard Hughes pushed TWA's finances to the limit to get into jets and while the arrival of the Jet Age to TWA marked the beginning of its zenith, it also laid the groundwork for Howard Hughes' eventual exit from TWA despite the near-limitless capital that he could access from his own parent company, Hughes Toolco. In February 1956 he ordered eight Boeing 707-120s, then followed in June 1956 with an order for 30 Convair 880s, and then 25 more Boeing 707s in May 1957. The value of these three orders was $300 million for the 63 jets, quite a large sum for those days. TWA raised additional funds with a one-to-one stock offering underwritten by Hughes Toolco that also gave Hughes 77% control of the airline. But the money raised from the stock offer wasn't enough and it looked like TWA couldn't meet its payroll obligations for the first quarter of 1958- Hughes borrowed $12 million from the banks, but at this point, one of TWA's original 1945 backers, Equitable Life, wanted a long term financing plan for the 63-jet order as it was getting nervous about Hughes' borrowing to meet basic costs like payroll. </div>
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To ease the creditors, Hughes had Toolco accept the obligations for the jet order who in turn would lease the aircraft to TWA. Aircraft orders were swapped with Pan American (something that pained Hughes to have to approach his rival Juan Trippe to help TWA out) and the Convair order was cut to 20 aircraft. It still wasn't enough and some of Hughes' banks cut off his credit in March 1960. With the other creditors, a short term financing plan was arranged to allow TWA to keep operating provided Toolco assumed all financial liabilities for the airline as long as there was a change in management at TWA. To further put the brakes on Hughes, his shares in TWA were put into a voting trust which essentially (and controversially for the day) locked out Hughes from the airline. While a financing plan agreeable to all the parties was eventually settled upon at the end of 1960, Hughes still found himself shut out of TWA and for six years lawsuit and countersuit after another were filed as he tried to regain control of TWA. He would finally give up in 1966 when in May of that year Hughes Toolco sold off its entire share of TWA stock and he was out of the airline business for the time being - four years later he bought Air West, but that's a topic for a future article!</div>
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Despite the legal battle over leadership and control over TWA, the airline still held gravitas in the airline market and with the traveling public, managing to overtake Pan Am in 1969 in numbers of passengers flown across the Atlantic. Despite Hughes' virtual ouster in 1960, TWA's managers realized they had something that rival Pan Am didn't- a domestic route network and it was high time on the heels of the launch of 707 services to bring short haul jet service to TWA's network. In 1961 TWA had ordered 10 Sud-Aviation Caravelles that would have been powered by GE aft fan CJ805 engines, but that order was canceled in May 1962 when Boeing's 727-100 offered greater promise; in fact, TWA had already ordered the Boeing 727-100 (10 aircraft) in March 1962 while it still had the Caravelle order in place. The airline's first two Boeing 727-100s were delivered on the same day, N850TW and N851TW which were delivered on 29 April 1964 with the first 727-100 services started on 1 June 1964 with two daily round trips between New York JFK and Indianapolis with services expanding to Boston, St. Louis, and Kansas City on 5 June. On 1 July 1964, TWA returned to New York La Guardia with four 727 flights per day. By the end of 1964, the 100th jet aircraft in TWA's fleet was in fact a Boeing 727-100 which the airline dubbed the "<i>Jetennial</i>" plane. By the end of 1964, TWA already had sixteen 727-100s in service. </div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiWO5C0GoaU_qxglkBIfqkERvLd-cKjKXw7cZDkH5imm-jxQPx39v4oMVQArm1ncG4t_wzZuI5a7IGLT2zsleR6Nk4P6UNC4e1uQvKIokWRTzO0BJ4rmcxK3L2BC90_b_AwKe1AmdL5K9I/s1600/Screen+Shot+2016-01-30+at+7.29.19+PM.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="316" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiWO5C0GoaU_qxglkBIfqkERvLd-cKjKXw7cZDkH5imm-jxQPx39v4oMVQArm1ncG4t_wzZuI5a7IGLT2zsleR6Nk4P6UNC4e1uQvKIokWRTzO0BJ4rmcxK3L2BC90_b_AwKe1AmdL5K9I/s400/Screen+Shot+2016-01-30+at+7.29.19+PM.png" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">TWA's 100th Jet was a Boeing 727-100<br />
<i>(TWA Skyliners Collection)</i></td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhnAoq0NlBPPYNtNxwhNZZCcOBGTjiPOLdCYTd-bDQuJL87PRDJHOBaQayyzdM6D06MewbIm8EgrAxsgKSWmdp2hfT6WdNWCJFTWUg6zEIiylIu_N0zOkXqh0eaWhCUlVOK5UlIUX6FObM/s1600/727s_TWAStar_blog2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="161" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhnAoq0NlBPPYNtNxwhNZZCcOBGTjiPOLdCYTd-bDQuJL87PRDJHOBaQayyzdM6D06MewbIm8EgrAxsgKSWmdp2hfT6WdNWCJFTWUg6zEIiylIu_N0zOkXqh0eaWhCUlVOK5UlIUX6FObM/s400/727s_TWAStar_blog2.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">N850TW along with N851TW were TWA's first 727 jets<br />
<i>(The Chicken Works: The Aviation Art of JP Santiago)</i></td></tr>
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The delivery of the Boeing 727-100s allowed TWA to finally retire its last passenger Lockheed Constellations on 6 April 1967 and become the first all-pure jet major airline in the United States. The last cargo Constellations were retired in the following month (12 May) with the introduction of six examples of "quick change" 727-100QC variant in the airline's fleet. The -100QCs were ordered in 1965. </div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi_jvaIhn_BUAmeksN4Q4MiEVdqAW999uCLfR5VXyGAmz3uB-Mw51nWXoakAcbA7cwXj1Xo3LeVLahb5p4qfewlKKkGN4GphOY20H1w5AbUXXf2XSZPT7HYjmSk39XIgfOTXnYCp9aOwag/s1600/727s_TWAStar_blog3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="225" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi_jvaIhn_BUAmeksN4Q4MiEVdqAW999uCLfR5VXyGAmz3uB-Mw51nWXoakAcbA7cwXj1Xo3LeVLahb5p4qfewlKKkGN4GphOY20H1w5AbUXXf2XSZPT7HYjmSk39XIgfOTXnYCp9aOwag/s400/727s_TWAStar_blog3.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">N12301 was TWA's first Boeing 727-200<br />
<i>(The Chicken Works: The Aviation Art of JP Santiago)</i></td></tr>
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With the 727-100 and the new Douglas DC-9 now flying short/medium jet services, in March 1968 TWA added the larger Boeing 727-200 to its fleet, the first -200 being N12301, delivered on 6 March 1968. Over its history, TWA's 727s were a vital backbone of its fleet with a total of 36 727-100s and 78 727-200s operated total- in fact, the 727 served longer with TWA than any other aircraft type used on a continuous basis by the airline. The Lockheed Constellation family, from the short body L-749 to the L-1649 Starliner, served for about 20 years. The Boeing 707s nearly served 25 years. The 727 at TWA outlasted the Lockheed L-1011 Tristar by nine years and the Boeing 747 by about seven years. The last 727 service at TWA took place on 30 September 2000, a remarkable 36-year history with the venerable trijet with the airline. </div>
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<i>Related reading: </i></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2010/08/history-of-twa-moonliner.html" target="_blank">The History of the TWA Mooliner</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2015/12/the-boeing-767-and-birth-of-etops.html" target="_blank">The Boeing 767 and the Birth of ETOPS</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.tailsthroughtime.com/2010/04/ive-always-had-soft-spot-for-boeing-727.html" target="_blank">The Boeing 727 JATO Option</a></div>
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<i>The TWA Starstream 727 print <a href="http://airlinebuzz.com/forums/showthread.php?82868-PRINT-Trans-World-Airlines-Boeing-727-100-amp-727-200-quot-Starstream-727-quot" target="_blank">can be seen in more detail here</a>. Contact me at thechickenworks@gmail.com for details. </i></div>
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<b>Sources: </b><i>TWA Skyliner</i> Collection, The State Historical Society of Missouri. <i>TWA: An Airline and Its Aircraft 75 Years of Pioneering Progress</i> by R.E.G. Davies. Palawdr Press, 2000, p75-81. </div>
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JP Santiagohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02743418658732808826noreply@blogger.com0